Goldfish Breeds OTHER AQUARIUM fr rnyc A Guide fo Freshwater iftqiil Marine Aquaaria Their Fauna, flora jmd Management Division of Fishes, ; J. 5. National Museum J ' \JejlA 2/*ty /f*/i /0 Ltmf//#?wh rf/ff&/tffs &*l Japanese Fringetail Goldfish Carassius auratus, var. japonicus pendulibicaudalis From Life 45. Division of Fl§h§«, v x "' S. Nations! MumW Goldfish Breeds and other Aquarium Fishes Their Care and Propagation/ A Guide to Freshwater and Marine Aquaria, Their Fauna, Flora and Management. With 280 Explanatory Illustrations, printed with the Text. By Herman T. Wolf Formerly Secretary of the Aquarium Society of Philadelphia; Member of the Academy of Natural Sciences and the Horti- cultural Society of Philadelphia; American Breeders' Associa- tion, American Fisheries Society, Zoological Society, etc., etc. INNES & SONS Publishers Philadelphia, U. S. A. Copyright 1908 by INNES & SONS PHILADELPHIA The Rights of Translation are reserved CONTENTS CHAPTER 1. The Goldfish — History of the Goldfish — Dorades de la Chine, by de Sauvigny — Cuvier and Valenciennes Descriptions — Fishes in General — Anatomy ot the Common Goldfish. CHAPTER II. The Freshwater Aquarium and Its Maintenance — History of the Aquarium — The Prop- erly Conditioned or Balanced Aquarium — Aquarium Plants in General — Scavengers — Kinds of Aquaria — Arranging the Aquarium — Covers for Aquaria — Stocking the Aquarium — Food — Advice to Beginners — Cleaning the Aquarium — Diseased Fishes — Restlessness of the Fishes — Effect of Gas, Fumes and Odors — Algae — Destruction of Plants by Fishes — Cruelty to Fishes. CHAPTER III. Goldfish Breeds — The Common Goldfish — Defects of the Finer Breeds of the Goldfish — Japanese and Chinese Goldfishes — De Sauvigny's Great Work on the Goldfishes of China. CHAPTER IV. Some Freshwater Aquarium Fishes — The Indian Paradise Fish — The Stickleback — The Sunfish— The Dace— The Chub— The Golden Orfe or Ide— The Tench— The Carp The Tessellated Darter— The Sucker— The Killifish— The Brilliant Chub-Sucker or Mullet — The Minnows — The Shiner or Roach — The Catfish — The Eel — The Spiny-rayed Fishes — Collecting in Streams and Ponds. CHAPTER V. The Propagation of the Goldfish — Embryology of the Goldfish— Artificial Impregnation of the Ova — Mating — Breeding — Prof. Ryder's Observations — Dr. Watase's Observations — Aquarium and Tank Culture — Basin and Pool Culture — Greenhouse Culture — Pond and Lake Culture — The Especially Equipped Breeding Establishment — Pond Aquaria — The Aquarium Grotto — Wintering Goldfishes. CHAPTER VI. Food and Feeding — Feeding the Fry — Natural Food — Entomostraca — Malocostraca — Amphipoda — Isopoda— Decapoda — Rotifera— Collecting Natural Food — Preserving Natural Food — Propagating Natural Food — Feeding in the Aquarium — Composition of Foods. CHAPTER VII. Ailments and Diseases of the Goldfish and Other Freshwater Fishes, and their Remedies — Detection of Illness — Treatment of Diseases — The Sanitarium and Hospital — Remedies — Fungus on Spawn and Treatment — White Fungus and Treatment — Black Fungus and Treatment — Twitters or Itch and Treatment — Autotoxine and Treatment — Constipation and Treatment — Fin Congestion and Treatment — Tail-rot and Treatment— Gill Congestion and Treatment — Consumption and Treatment — Eye Inflammation and Treatment — Swimming-bladder Trouble and Treatment — Dropsy and Treatment — Injuries and Treatment — Handling Diseased Fishes — Larger Enemies of the Goldfish — Parasites and Parasitic Diseases — Animal Parasites — Trema- toda or Flukes — Cestoda or Tapeworms — Nematoda or Roundworms— Acanthocephala or Thorn-headed Worms — Hirudinid;e or Leeches — Arachnia — Crustacea — Insecta — Bacteria — 3 Sporozoa — Infusoria — Rotifera — Prevention of Parasitic Diseases — Parasiticides — Vegetal Para- sites — Parasitic Fungi — Saprolegniaceae — Other Common Forms of Fungi — Prevention of Fungus in the Aquarium — Treatment for Vegetal Parasites — Algae More or Less Parasitic — The Alga? ot the Aquarium — Slime Fungus and Treatment — Fungi on Plants and Treatment. CHAPTER VIII. Conditions of Light, Water, Aeration, etc. — Conditions of Light — Water Conditions — Water Analvses — Aeration — Soil for Aquatic Plants — Rockwork for the Aquarium. CHAPTER IX. The Freshwater Aquatic Plants — Sagittaria — Cabomba — Vallisneria — Myriophyllum and Proserpinaca — Ludwigia — Nitella and Chara — Anacharis — Ceratophyllum — Hippuris — Fonti- na li s — Potamogeton — Watercress — Callitriche — Utricularia — Hottonia — Freshwater Alga? — Floating Water Plants — Duckweed — Floating Pondmoss — Crystalwort — Salvinia — Trianea — Frog-bit — Water Hyacinth — Water Lettuce — Oranamental Aquarium Plants — Ouvirandra — Pond Plants— Terrarium and Aqua-terrarium Plants. CHAPTER X. The Molluscs, Vermes and Hydrozoa of Freshwater — Freshwater Molluscs — Univalves — Bivalves — Classification of the Univalves — Order Prosabranchia — Order Pulmonata — General Remarks — Best Aquarium Snails — Snail Breeding — Classification of the Bivalves — Order Lamellibranchiata — General Remarks — Best Aquarium Mussels — Freshwater Vermes and Hydrozoa — Tubicola and Hydra — Cordylophora. CHAPTER XL The Freshwater Aquatic Insects — Insect Enemies of Fishes — Order Hemiptera — Order Neuroptera — Order Thysanura — Order Coleoptera — Order Lepidoptera — Order Arachnidae. CHAPTER XII. Aquarium Construction, Tools and Appliances — Aquarium Proportions — Bases — Frames — Glass — Cements — Constructing Aquarium Frames — Assembling the Aquarium — Some Aquaria Data — Nets, Forceps and Other Tools — Aquarium Stands. CHAPTER XIII. The Marine Aquarium — Aeration — Forms of Marine Aquaria — Arranging the Aquarium — Seawater — Artificial Seawater — Temperature — Marine Aquarium Plants — The Marine Flora — Green Algae — Olive-colored Algas — Red Alga? — Algae for Marine Aquaria — Marine Fauna Coelenterata — Vermes — Molluscoida — Echinodermata — Arthropoda — Mollusca — Chordata — Pisces — Care of the Marine Aquarium — Filters— Feeding Marine Animals — Stocking the Marine Aquarium — Acclimatization — Collecting for the Marine Aquarium — Tansporting Catches — Re- ceiving Consignments — Aquarium Tools. CHAPTER XIV. The Terrarium and Aqua-terrarium — Dry Terraria — Moist Terraria — Heated Dry Terraria — Heated Moist Terraria — Planting the Terrarium — Aqua-terraria — Animals for the Terrarium and Aqua-terrarium — Batrachia, Frogs, Toads and Tree Toads — Urodela, Salamanders and Newts — Squamata, Lizards and Snakes — Loricata, Alligators and Crocodiles — Testudinata, Land and Water Turtles — Feeding in Terrarium. CHAPTER XV. Miscellaneous — Don'ts for Beginners — Aquarium Societies — Points forjudging Goldfishes — Glossary of Scientific Terms — Bibliography, etc. — Index. AUTHORS PREFACE TO the lover of Nature all forms of life are interesting and there is nothing of greater charm, more diverting or restful to the mind than observations of the natural phenomena of the world about us. The habits of land animals and plants are easily observed but the facina- ting study of the ever-varying beauty of aquatic life presents greater diffi- culty, as the denizens of the water can only be kept alive for convenient observation when the natural conditions of their existence are understood and simulated; and to those not satisfied with the dried mummy forms of the specimen cabinet or of others in preserving fluids, the aquarium and terrarium offer the best aid to that liberal education which is acquired only by personal observation. There is, however, probably no pursuit in the natural sciences more abused by false statements, crass ignorance of the subject, trickery of trade and wilful withholding of the truth, than the care and maintenance of the aquarium, the breeding of aquarium fishes, and the cure of their diseases. Let it be here stated that these are only troublesome when not correctly understood, and the laws governing the existence of the plants and animals violated, either from lack of information or by misleading counsel. A simple and full elucidation of the correct governing principles is greatly to be desired, as technical zoological and botanical treatment would not accomplish the purpose, nor would books of that nature reach the general public. There are a number of good American and foreign pub- lications which severally treat of the aquarium and its inhabitants, the culture of the goldfish, and the descriptions of freshwater and marine fauna and flora, for the use of the collector, but there is none of sufficiently wide scope to cover the entire field, and by concise, up-to-date, easily compre- hensible descriptions and abundant illustrations to fully familiarize the subject to all readers, the novice, the amateur and the adept. The author's interest in aquaria and the breeding of fine goldfishes first led him to make the drawings and later prepare the accompanying text, as an interesting study and pleasant diversion, apart from any motives of profit. He has nothing to sell, nothing to conceal, nothing to withhold. It has been his earnest effort to give as complete an insight of the subject as is possible in a book of the present dimensions. He desires to bring statements of facts before the reader in simple, practical and readable form, to incorporate all obtainable accurate information and useful precept in easily understood terms, without enthusiasm; and where possible, impart explanations of the often puzzling phenomena which tend to mislead and discourage both the novice and the expert fancier. Though the discussions of Aquarium Societies are unquestionably the best means of acquiring information and of removing difficulties, these are usually not accessible to the masses and are patronized more especially by adepts, novices not realizing that it is inexperience which leads to their many annoyances, and so losing confidence give up a recreation which should only animate to constantly increasing effort. It is freely admitted that the herein contained information pertaining to the breeding and care of the goldfish, aquarium hints and kindred subjects, is the consensus of opinion and the recognized best practice ot the members of the Aquarium Society of Philadelphia, as elucidated by the discussions and official transactions of the past eight years. The classifications and descriptions of the goldfish breeds and varieties are those recognized as its criterion upon which awards in competitions are made; and the drawings, with but few exceptions, accurate portraits of living fishes owned by members and attested to over their signatures. The classifications of the plants are those of Britton and Brown and other recognized American authorities. Written on a flyleaf of a book which was probably the first American publication on the aquarium and its inhabitants is the following memo- randum: — August 7, 1858. Completed the Aquarium. Stock, 4 Goldfish 2 Carp 1 Crawfish 1 Turtle Mit Gott. Though much has been learned in the fifty years since the above was written, pertaining to the physiological principals governing aquatic existence, the properly conditioned aquarium, the marvelous toy breeds of the goldfish and other aquarium fishes, there still remains much which is unexplained and which may prevent the aquarium and terrarium becoming as much a feature of almost every household as potted plants, the canary bird, the dog and the cat; and why the same success is usually not attained with fishes as with other domesticated animals. It is hoped that this book will remove some of these difficulties and enable all to indulge in this enjoyment to whatever extent they may be inclined. In the preparation of this volume the author has made use of every available source for information, and is personally indebted for aid in various ways to Dr. Herman Burgin, Dr. Robert Formad, Dr. Henry Skinner, Dr. J. Percy Moore, Mr. Stuartson Brown, Mr. E. (i. Vanatta, Mr. Henry W. Fowler, Mr. Wm. H. Hetzel, and Mr. Rudolph H. Wolf. The Author CHAPTER I. History and Anatomy of the Goldfish THE GOLDFISH The beauty and hardiness of the goldfish has made it a household pet for centuries, and until comparatively recently it was the only domes- ticated fish. Its history and origin are lost in dim and distant ages, though from the earliest descriptions to those of the present day authorities agree that the fish was derived from the golden carp or a similar member of the Cyprinidse, and originated in a lake near a high mountain named Tsienking, near the city of Tchanghou, in the province of Tche-Kiang; and thence distributed to other provinces of the Chinese realm. It was trans- planted to Japan, and then brought to Europe, in the year 1611, where it was well-known in 1728. Later it was brought to the United States, where its propagation has become an industry of considerable magnitude. Dr. S. Watase states that the goldfish was first introduced into Japan from China at the beginning of the sixteenth century; and subsequentlv, at frequent intervals, from China, Loo-choo and Corea. This first im- ported goldfish was what is now known in Japan as the "Japanese breed" or the "Wakin," having a slender body closely resembling that of the carp and probably like the common American and European goldfish. The Loo-choo goldfish, known as the "Riukin" has a short body, rounded ab- domen, and a tail longer than the rest of the fish. The Corean goldfish, known as the "Maruko" or the"Ranchiu," is characterized bv a verv short body, which is often almost globular, and the absence of the dorsal fin. There exist various intermediate forms; and the Japanese goldfish breeders can freely produce the "Riukin" and "Maruko" from the "Wakin"; in- dicating that the latter is the primitive form. Of the European authorities Pennant, in the tenth edition of Systema Natural, 1 75 1 , published drawings of several breeds, descriptions of which resemble those given by Linnaeus; and show individuals with double anal and bifurcated and trifurcated caudal fins, which he designated as C. pinna ani gemina, cauda transversa bifurca. M. Baster, in 1765, on Plate IX, Vol. II, of Opusculus subsiciva, also illustrated six varieties of goldfishes which he had living in basins. George Edwards, of the Royal College of Physicians of London, in 1756, mentioned on the subject of the Goldfish that "His Grace, the late Duke of Richmond, had a large Chinese earthen vessel full of these fishes brought to England. I drew some of them for his Grace with leave to make the drawings public. The first account of these fishes being brought to England may be found in Petiver's Works, published about 1 69 1 , though HISTORY AND ANATOMY OF THE GOLDFISH they were not generally known till 1728, when a large number were brought over in the Houghton Indiaman, Captain Philip Worth, and presented by him to Sir Mathew Decker; since when they have been propagated in ponds in the neighborhood of London. They may now be esteemed a domestic fish." Edward's colored engravings show five fishes having the general con- formation of the ordinary goldfish but with double anal fins; one of blue color on the back and red sides; one all red with a "spiked" dorsal fin of four rays; one red and white with a distinctly "webbed" tail; and one having a brown back, white sides and red abdomen. All have the relative length of body, head and eyes of the common goldfish. Dr. Elieser Bloch, in Ichthiologie, edition of 1784, describes the gold- fish and mentions some kept alive by him in Germany. Three illustrations accompany the article. In a later volume there is one other illustration ot which both the description and the appearance would lead to the infer- ence that it was a native Chinese fish and the probable progenitor of the Chinese Telescope goldfish and its kindred varieties. His is an interesting description, part fact, part fancy, but worthv of reproduction here. Of the first-named three fishes, No. 1 is described as follows:^ " The head is of moderate length, the nostrils near the eyes, which have a dark star in a golden ring, the rest of the head being of a golden color; and the operculaj consist of two blades. The back is rounded and several black spots are noticeable. On the sides it is red with gold, and the abdomen reddish mixed with silver. Large scales cover the body. The sides are nar- row and straight. The fins of the sides are carmine and the tail forked. I know of no fish of which the fins are more varied, as I have one which has a small dorsal of nine spines, others with it entirely absent; another has in place of the dorsal only a hump and a third two of these humps. One of these fishes has a double anal fin and a forked tail; with another the tail is un- usually long and all the other fins relatively very much longer than usual. The double anal fins stand side by side, and the superfluous lobe of the tail grows in the centre. It would appear that the tendency of the absence of one fin occasions the duplication of another, which may have given rise to the culture of the fish. Remarkable is the fact that its color changes with age. In the first year it is usually black, a color which Nature often produces in minerals and quadrupeds, more seldom in insects, birds and plants, and never with fishes except these. After the first year silver spots usually appear which gradually extend in size until the fish assumes a silver grey appearance, after which it becomes red and more beautiful the older it grows; though it some- times happens that after the red it assumes a permanent silver color. Occasionally it is red from infancy The fish possesses a brilliancy which is astonishing, as it throws a lustre from the glass of water wherein I kept it, like that of a glowing coal in the dark; but my pleasure did not last long, for after death, it was in spirits but a few days before the color disappeared, a circumstance which would indicate that the color is produced by a delicate mucus (slime) which covers the fish, as the spirits assume a red color as the fish lost it; a similar occurrence to what I noticed with the Schlampitzger, which lost its fine orange color on the abdomen as in holding it the mucus came off on my hand. What further induced me to adhere to this opinion is that the fish retains its color when dried or mounted, as the mucus dries on the surface and is preserved by the varnish." This is a strange combination of correct and of faulty observations, interesting both on account of their antiquity and of the information which thev contain. HISTORY AND ANATOMY OF THE GOLDFISH The researches of both the author and of his friends leads to the belief that all the descriptions of the toy varieties of the goldfish, subsequent to 1780, and many of those which still pass current, are based upon a monograph and series of colored plates published in Paris in 1780. The constant recurrence of allusions and reference to this work and the almost identical phraseology in describing the fishes, would indicate that the first and probably only authentic information of the goldfishes of China was this monograph which the Manual du Libraire mentioned as the " Histoire Naturelle des Dorades de la Chine, par de Sauvigny ; gravee par M. F. N. Martinet, accompagnee d' observations. Paris, 1780, gr. in-fol. col." and briefly states " There appeared but 24 pages with the frontispiece and 48 colored plates." These represent seven distinct breeds and eighty- eight varieties of Chinese goldfishes painted from nature by Panzv-Mis- sionaire and sent to the French Minister of State, N. Bertin, in 1772. Most diligent search and extensive inquiry failed to produce any further information of these most important documents, of which no copy then existed in any library in the United States, nor are they mentioned in the catalogues of the libraries of Europe; but in March 1904, through the instrumentality of the author, probably the only known copy was acquired by the Academy of Natural Science of Philadelphia. In Historie Naturelle des Poissons, i8d'3,de Lacepede describes and illus- trates three goldfishes. One of these he named Cyprin Anne-caroline. It has the head and body of the common goldfish, a long, low, 17-spined dorsal fin, extending over the back almost to the base of the tail, narrow paired fins, a single anal fin and the short caudal fin of the common gold- fish, but deeply bifurcated. It has a brilliant gold and silver color on the head, back and side and yellow fins. The back is overlaid with streaks and spots of metallic black. The second illustration shows a scaled, slightly telescopic-eyed fish, with rather long body, fins like the common goldfish, but having a distinctly double tail, deeply bifurcated. This he calls Cyprin Gros-yeux. The third illustration shows a fish similar to the second, with a shorter dorsal fin and a broader double tail. The eyes are like those of the common goldfish. This he calls Cyprin Quatre-lobes. In the Histoire Naturelle des Poissons, 1842, by M. le B. Cuvier and M. A. Valenciennes, the following descriptions of Chinese goldfishes are given, which appear to be largely taken from the writings of de Sauvigny and de Lacepede: — The Ta-Tati-Tu or Duck Eggs, so called because of their shortened form and swollen middle. It appears from the drawings that the most of the individuals lack a dorsal fin, have two anals and four-lobed caudal fins. This variety usually remains on the bottom ot the water 13 HISTORY AND ANATOMY OF THE GOLDFISH in an overturned position, the back down and the belly upwards ; but can turn readilv when thev wish to swim, or can move about as well in the overturned position. It seems that this is also the most richly colored fish. The Long-Tsing-Tu oi Dragon Eyes correspond with the " Telescope " and "Gros-yeux" of M. de Lacepede, a variety remarkable for the enormous development of the eves. I have dissected them and have not found any difference in internal or external structure, the eve only is much larger. Their right or oblique muscles were very weak, but the oblique nerves did not appear smaller. This fish often holds itself overturned like the preceding. The Chinese have a singular belief as to the origin of this species, regarding it as a cross between the ordinary Kin- yu, or common goldfish, fecundated by a frog. It is however one of the rarest breeds, and are sold in Pekin for as much as twenty thalers apiece. The Choui-Yu or Sleepers are a variety which keep themselves at the bottom of the water without motion. It would appear that to come to the surface of the vessel is a fatigue for the fish because it goes back very promptly to the sand. The Kin- Icon- Tu or Leapers have the habit of frequently obliquely jumping out of the water, like some species of our carp. The Kin-Eubk-Tu of Nymphs are less brilliant in gold or silver than the others; but the delicate lustre, the rich shades and the iridescence of their colorings and the quickness of their movements, make this variety highly appreciated. The Quen-Tu or Lettered. In conclusion the missionaries mention the Quen-yu or lettered goldfish, the colors of which are so placed that one seems to find Chinese characters along their sides. The dealers in Pekin pretend that they obtained this result by a secret method. The fathers of the missions learned, but without verification from trustworthy source, that the Chinese by a method similar to tatooing cause the sides of the fish to appear as though covered by written characters. They believe that a paste is employed to leave these tracings on the fish, made of arsenic mixed with the urine of the tortoise, as skin preparations usually contain this metal; which has a very active effect; and it is natural to suppose that this metallic agent would leave marks on the horny scales of the fish. The above constitutes the basis for probably all the more recent de- scriptions of the Chinese goldfish breeds; the differences being principally in the wording, errors of translation, or unfamiliarity with the toy varieties of this fish. I n the Nouveau Memoirs de la Societe Imperial des Naturists de Moscow >, 1855, M. Basilewsky depicted five goldfishes, which he designated cyprini aurati y 2.\\ having elongated bodies, either " tripod " tails, "web " tails or double tails; and two having "spiked" dorsal fins of three and five rays. All have larger eyes than the common goldfish but not protruding from the head. Dr. P. Bleeker in the Atlas Ichthiologique des Indes Neerlandisis 1863, describes nine breeds of goldfishes, four from Sarakarta, Java, and five from Jedo, Japan. Two of these are new, the others are based upon the descriptions and nomenclature of Bloch, Valenciennes, de Lacepede and Basilewsky. FISHES IN GENERAL The Pisces or fishes belong to the Vertebrata and may be defined as gilled and generally scaled cold-blooded vertebrate animals having a heart consisting of a single auricle and ventricle, limbs in the form of fins, 14 HISTORY AND ANATOMY OF THE GOLDFISH and a body adapted to rapid locomotion in water, and shaped to offer the least resistance and friction in swimming. The goldfish is a member of the carp family, and has been variously known as Cyprinus auratus and Carassius auratus, the latter designation being more recently preferred as more distinctive of the ornamental fish as there is a species of food carp which bears the name Cy prinus aureus. Anatomy of the Common Goldfish. Fig. i. As one of the bony fishes, it has the vertebras hollow at the ends, united by ligaments, and having the cavities filled with a gelatinous substance in order to give to the spine the mobile flexibility requisite to existence in a fluid medium. .-17 12 13 1*15 1516 COMMON AMERICAN GOLDFISH Carassius auratus amerh amis. FIG. i — Parts referred to in descriptions. 9 Anus. io Ventral tin. i i Pectoral fin. 1 2 Branchiostegals. 1 3 Operculum. 14 Eve. 1^ Upper jaw, or maxillary. 1 5A. 16 Lower jaw, or mandible. 1 7 Nostril rbital. 1 Snout. 2 Distance from snout to nape, or occiput. 3 Head. 4 Lateral line. 5 Dorsal fin. 6 Base of caudal fin. 1 to 6 Distance from snout to base of caudal fin. 7 Caudal fin. 8 Anal fin The spinal column is divided into an abdominal and a caudal region, the bones forming the arch through which the, spinal cord passes. There are also transverse processes and an inferior arch below, which carries the lower caudal spine and the inters.pinous bones of the anal fin. The ribs are slender, curved bones each attached to a vertebra and imbedded in the muscles of the sides and abdomen. The interspinous bones in the middle line of the back between the lateral muscles, are connected with the verte- brae by ligaments, their outer ends being interspaced with the median or dorsal fin. The skull is a complicated structure consisting principally of thecranial, the maxillary and inter-maxillary, the pra>operculum,sub-opercu- lum, and inter-operculum, mandible and other smaller intermediary bones. 15 HISTORY AND ANATOMY OF THE GOLDFISH The ordinary goldfish has two sets of horizontal paired fins, the anterior paired or pectoral fins, Fig. 2, connected with the clavicles and the skull immediately behind the gills, and the posterior paired or ventral fins inserted on the abdominal surface below and to the rear of the pectorals FIG. 2 — Skeleton of the Common Goldfish and articulated to the posterior visceral arches and the pubic bone. The single median or dorsal fin is interspaced with the upper interspinous bones; the single anal fin with the lower interspinious bones, and the tail or caudal fin set vertically at the extremity of the spine, articulated so that it is flex- ible in all directions. The rays of all the fins are branched, increasing in number towards their extremities. The spinous and soft rays of the paired fins correspond with the bones of the limbs of other animals, one of their functions being to maintain the balance of the fish. Retrograde motion is principally affected by the pectoral fins which also direct the course of the fish by acting as propellers, further serving as adjuncts to the respi- ratory system in changing the water at the gills. The ventral fins act as a break in checking the forward motion in addition to aiding in the retro- grade movement. The dorsal and anal fins balance the body, and as rud- ders prevent zigzag or rocking motion, while the caudal fin is the principal means of locomotion, and also, together with the anal fin, aids in steering the fish. All the fins are organs of motion, but it is by the caudal fin that the fish is impelled forward. If the movement is to be swift, it is strongly bent to the right and left, while a gentle forward motion is effected by an undulating movement, the lobes and rays of the caudal fin, acting like the blades of a screw or an oar in sculling. It the fish wishes to move towards the left, it gives a stroke of the tail to the right, the right pectoral 16 HISTORY AND ANATOMY OF THK GOLDFISH fin acting simultaneously while the left remains pressed to the body; if the motion is to be checked, the ventral fins are erected and expanded vertically ; if the motion is to be retrograde, a backward stroke is made with all the paired fins and the dorsal and anal fins held rigidly upright, the caudal fin being either held on a line with the body or slightly relaxed; and should the retrograde movement be in either direction, the caudal fin is flexed to the opposite side. By observing injured fishes the purpose of the fins will be manifested. If a pectoral fin is useless or both a pectoral and a ventral fin on the same side, loss of balance will ensue, the fish falling on the opposite side ; with- out both the pectorals, the head sinks ; without the ventrals, the motion is unsteady; without the dorsal and anal fins the motion is zigzag; with- out the caudal fin, forward movement is labored and slow; and without any of the horizontal and vertical fins, the fish floats helplessly on its back, this being the heaviest part of the body. The head and fins of the goldfish are naked, that is, devoid of scales; but the body is covered with an even layer of cycloidal scales which con- sist of thin, flexible, horny discs, almost circular in form and evenly imbri- cated, or overlapping each other like tiles, with the posterior parts extend- ed and free, the anterior parts being embedded in the epidermis and muscular tissue. Fig. 3. They have an enameled surface, showing a fine striation concentric to the margin with stiffening ribs radiating from the rear. Their arrangement is in an oblia^e transverse section across the body. On each side, reaching from the head to the caudal fin, there is a row of scales different from these in structure, which constitute the lateral line. Each of these scales is perforated by a tube leading to a duct connected with a sac in the head; their func- tion being the excretion of mucus which covers the body to lessen the friction of scales and water, and to make it impervious thereto. This mucilaginous system is also pro- vided with nerves and is the seat of a peculiar sense which corresponds to the organs of touch and hearing. The digestive system of the goldfish is simple and adapted to its natural mixed diet. Fig. 4. Devoid of teeth, a limited mastication only takes place in the throat, which, for this purpose, is provided with a num- ber of bony protuberances. The mouth is formed of the maxillary and the mandible bones, having labial folds or lips. The oesophagus is FIG. 3 — Greatlv enlarged scale of the Goldfish and diagram of imbrication. HISTORY AND ANATOMY OF THE GOLDFISH capacious and opens into a well-defined stomach furnished with a valve, behind which are a number of enlargements or appendages, the pyloric caeca, which probably serve as the pancreas. The intestinal canal is a con- voluted tube lined by a mucus membrane which winds in easy turns from FIG. 4 — Interior anatomy of" the Goldfish, showing parts referred to in descriptions, i Gullet and gills. 5 Vertebra;. 9 Kidney. 2 Eye socket. 6 Heart. 10 Milt. 3 Nasal passage. 7 Swimming-bladder. 1 1 Intestines. 4 Brain. 8 Liver. 8a Stomach. 12 Anus. the pylorus to the anus. The liver is large, the gall-bladder distinct, and the kidneys, situated outside of the peritoneal cavity, form two elongated organs below the spine. The swimming bladder is large and consists of a constricted sac di- vided into an anterior and a posterior portion which contains air. It is placed above the alimentary canal and communicates with the gullet by a duct. It serves to maintain the specific gravity and to change the centre of gravity of the fish and is enlarged or contracted by muscular action, whereby the air is expanded or compressed. When this bladder is rup- tured, malformed or diseased the fish loses all power of changing its posi- tion except in limited motion over the bottom of the tank, or is helpless on the surface of the water. The reproductive system of the goldfish is oviparous, the ovaries of the female being known as the roe and the testes of the male as the milt. 1 he ovaries are placed below the spinal column on each side of the swim- ming bladder and posteriorly united with a Fallopian tube or oviduct which leads to an opening behind the anus. The milt of the male are similarly located, and contain a thick white fluid in which are the spermatozoa. The eggs or spawn when laid, are slightly compressed globules, about the size of the head ofa pin, of semi-transparent, white or yellowish color. Fecunda- 18 HISTORY AND ANATOMY OF THE GOLDFISH FIG. 5 — Diagram of the Blood cir culatory systems of Fishes, Rep tiles and Mammals. No. I — Diagram ofa fish tion takes place after the eggs are discharged, their outline then assuming a more spherical form, whereby the spermatozoa are drawn into the ova through minute orifices and the egg fertilized. The circulation of the blood is induced by a branchial or respiratory heart consisting of two cavities, an auricle and a ventricle. Fig. 5. The venous blood, coming from the liver and the body generally, is taken through the vena cava into the auricle and pro- pelled into the ventricle, from which arises an aortic arch, dilated at the base into a cavity, the bulbus arteriosus, which has transverse rows of valves, and is covered with muscular fibres for rhythmical contraction. The blood is driven by the ventricle through the branchial artery to the gills where it is distributed by means of the bran- chial laminae and subjected to the action of the aerated water and thereby oxygenated. The water is taken in at the mouth, forced to the branchia by muscular action, passed over the gills, a ' Auricle receiving venous blood deoxydized and then emitted from the gill slits, from the body. J a ■v Ventricle. Q r opercular appertures, on each side of the neck. a Bulbus artoriosus, at the base of ..... . ^ • r j J the branchial artery. These gill slits are closed in rront and covered ** ZZOSSiZg? *" by the operculum bones connected by bony spines c Aorta, carrying the arterial blood ^^ t h e hyoid arch supporting the branchiostegal to all parts of the body. J . membrane. The aerated blood is not returned to the heart, as in higher forms of animals, but is driven from the branchia through all parts of the body by the action both of the heart and the contractions of the voluntary muscles; that is, the arterial blood returned from the gills is pro- pelled through the systemic vessels of the body without being first sent back to the heart. The oxygen thus consumed is not that which forms the chemical constituent of water (H2O) but that contained in the air which is dissolved or in sus- pension in the water. Fishes transferred to water devoid of air are speedily suffocated, but gold- fishes are of low vitality and their absorption of b ^ e or b t ^ carr y' mgarterialbloodto oxygen is comparatively small, as compared with c Vena cava, carrying venous others; this, however, being also characteristic of blood to the heart. . . , The arterial system is left white all Stillwater fishes in greater or lesser degree. and the venous system is black. parts Z Gills No. 2 — Diagram of a Reptile. a Right auricle, receiving venous blood from the body. a' Left auricle, receiving arterial blood from the lungs. ■v Arterio-venous ventricle, con- taining mixed blood, which is driven by the pulmonary artery (p) to the lungs, and by the aorta (o) to the body. The venous system is left light, the arterial system is black, and vessels containing mixed blood are cross-shaded. No. 3 — Diagram of a Mammal. a Right auricle. ■v Right ventricle. p Pulmonary artery, carrying ven- ous blood to the lungs. pv Pulmonary veins, carrying arte- rial blood from the lungs. a f Left auricle. 1/ Left ventricle. 19 HISTORY AND ANATOMY OF THE GOLDFISH The nervous system of the goldfish is well developed but of some- what inferior type. The brain is small and appears to consist mainly of ganglia devoted to the special senses. The eyes are large, brilliant and well developed, devoid of eyelids, and have a considerable range of vision, and probably some magnifying power as compared with the human sight. The interorbital space is wide, the eyes being placed at the sides of the head, directed somewhat forward, the angles of vision being both to the front and to the sides. The pupils are nearly round with flattened, slight- ly convex cornea, and are enveloped in a layer of gelatinous substance which covers the cavity of the orbit and permits of considerable move- ment of the bulbus. They have brilliant dark centres and white, yel- lowish or reddish borders. Goldfishes are voiceless, having no lungs nor any of the auditory organs present in some species of fishes. The nose has two erect nasal appendages below the infraorbital space with tubes leading to sacs lined with a folded olfactory membrane. Anteriorly the water is admitted into the sacs, but posteriorly they are closed and do not connect with the pharynx ; the sense of smell apparently not being very acute. The sense of taste is located in the sensory nerves of the palate, in a thick cushion of soft contractile substance supplied with nerves. The essential portions of the organs of hearing are present but not fully developed, and consist of rudimentary organs located at the base of the cranial cavity, a labyrinth with vestibule and semicircular canals, but the tympanum and the external parts are entirely absent, though the bones in the temporal region are thin and may partially serve the purpose of conducting soundwaves. The sense of touch is very well developed and it would appear that sensations of sound are communicated by vibrations in the water, which act on the sensory nerves of the scales, more especially those of the lateral line. On this account the fish probably feels, rather than hears, sounds. The nerves on the surface of the fish, both of the scales and of the fins, are well developed. The fish has a well-organized muscular system in all parts ot the body. There are sets of muscles that cover the sides of the trunk, the back and the tail, composed of many tendons branching from the large lateral muscles, these being divided into dorsal and ventral halves. Each fin possesses a separate system of muscles which governs every move- ment. Internally, the muscles are greatly ramified and control all the organs. HISTORY AND ANATOMY OF THE GOLDFISH The goldfish has no fixed period for slumber, apparently sleeping whenever desirable, by day or by night. It remains motionless on the bottom of the tank or rests on the plants, breathing slowly and regularly, the eyes slightly withdrawn, vacant and of a glassy stare. All the fins but the pectorals are motionless, and these have only sufficient movement to change the water at the gills. If undisturbed this rest may be for hours, but usually it is only for a few minutes at frequent intervals. The diet of the goldfish is omnifarious, its food consisting of the minute vegetal, insectile and animal organisms found in its natural habita- tion, and the young shoots and tender leaves of aquatic plants, as well as smaller fishes and its own spawn and young. The excrement, when the fish is in a healthy condition, is dark brown or black, and usually appends for some time, as a long vermicelli-like thread. From its appearance illness of the fish or constipationyrnay often be first detected. CHAPTER II. The Freshwater Aquarium and its Maintenance. THE AQUARIUM A well-kept aquarium is unquestionably one of the most beautiful ornaments in the household, as it is both decorative and instructive, and a constant source of interest and entertainment to young and old. To the lover of the beautiful in Nature, the plant and animal life, thus brought under ready observation, affords opportunity for study and investigation that must lead to broader views and a higher appreciation of the beauties of nature. Development of the Aquarium. Of the early history of the aquarium Henry D. Butler states that " the great principle of the Aquarium was faintly indicated by Priestley, as long ago as the close of the i 8th Century; Ingelhauss approached it more closely in 1778-9; Daubeny touched its verge in 1833; Dr. W. B. Ward, in 1837, suggested it with some distinction; Dr. Johnson partially demonstrated it in 1842; Dr. Lankester, in 1849, ar >d Warrington, in 1850, rendered it conclusive; but Dr. Philip H. Gosse, in 1852, perfected all the labors of his predecessors in a series of decisive experiments that left no room for doubt or contra- diction." "An aquarium had also, about this time, established itself, by acci- dent, at Hampton Court, England, and was described by M. Jesse. In a water tank in the open air, plants and snails made themselves unbidden confreres with the fishes. Nature did the rest, as she does in those more gigantic Aquaria, the placid lake and the majestic river." " Next followed the grand Aquaria of London and Dublin under regal auspices. These were sumptuous exhibitions; and in a short time created such a popular interest in Great Britain that all the other curiosi- ties of nature sank at once, into comparative insignificance." Other authorities mention that Priestley, in 1833, discovered that growing plants, submerged in water, gave off oxygen when exposed to sun- light. In 1844, Ward succeeded in keeping fishes together with plants, but did not know the law of balance between plant and animal life. In 1849, Wm. Stimson had several aquaria at the Smithsonian Institute, but did not give publicity to the fact. But in 1850, Robert Warrington, of Manchester, England, read a monograph before the London Chemical Society on "The Relation between the Animal and Vegetable Kingdom," in which he explained the principle for the arrangement and maintenance of the aquarium. Later, he in conjunction with Dr. Gosse, continued their experiments and learned of the necessity of snails, and this finally solved the entire problem of the balanced freshwater aquarium. Dr. Gosse 25 THE FRESHWATER AQUARIUM AND ITS MAINTENANCE also first applied the term "aquarium " to fish tanks, it having previously been used by the botanists to designate aquatic plant receptacles. The Properly Conditioned or Balanced Aquarium. When properly arranged, its maintenance is very simple, but the governing prin- ciples of a balanced aquarium are not always understood. It is not real- ized that when the relations of plant to animal life are correctly propor- tioned, the aquarium is virtually self-sustaining or balanced, and the water need only be changed at long intervals, often of a year or more. Plants in their growth liberate oxygen and take up the carbon-oxide and dioxide given off by the living creatures; the latter, in their turn re- quire the liberated oxygen, which is either in suspension or dissolved in the water, to maintain their existence. Hence, if the plants and animals are properlv balanced, the quality of the water remains fixed, and onlv becomes vitiated after a long period through the presence of other gases generated by the excrement of the animals and the decomposition pro- duced by the general decay of the plants, of food, and other organic sub- tances. Oxygen is absorbed in considerable quantity by the breathing organs of the living inmates, for the oxidation of waste carbonaceous matter, thereby producing carbonic acid gas. This, during the daytime, is absorbed by the plants, the contained carbon being required to add to the solid structure of the plants, and the oxygen is set free in the water. Thus the double action of animals and plants maintains an almost perfect balance, as the animals diminish the proportion of oxygen and add to the quantity of carbonic acid gas, and the plants increase the oxygen and di- minish the carbonic acid gas. The fishes, however, consume more oxygen than still water takes up from the air, and if oxygen-liberating plants are not introduced into the aquarium, they suffer from the lack thereof, become restless, come to the surface to breathe the air, and may finally die of asphyxiation. It must not, however, be taken that an exact balance is ever attained, and it is better to have a preponderance of the oxygenating element, re- stricting the animal- life to that which will live comfortably in the existing environment, and that the nearer these conditions are approached the better the inhabitants will thrive and the less often the water need be changed. Aquarium Plants. Not all aquatic plants, are equally good gener- ators of oxygen and some information is requisite to make a selection of those which best fulfil this necessary purpose. There are quite a number of readily obtainable plants which perform this function, many of them native and others to be had of dealers. These are, in the order of their 26 THE FRESHWATER AQUARIUM AND ITS MAINTENANCE utility, Sagittafia (floating arrowhead), Cabomba (fanwort), Vallisneria (eel or tape grass), Anacharis (water weed), Myriophyllum (water milfoil), Ludwigia (loose strife), Fontinalis (willow moss), Ceratophyllum I horn- wort), Potamogeton (pond or stink weed), and others, of which more will be stated hereafter. Scavengers. To get rid of offal and waste matter generally, scav- engers must be introduced, the best of these being frog tadpoles and those species of snails that do not attack the plants. When not overfed, they also clean the glass of the green coating of Algae, the minute water plants, though these are far from objectionable, as they are one of the natural foods of the fishes. Kinds of Aquaria. Any vessel will serve as an aquarium if it is clean and impervious to water, but glass better permits of observation of the contents. The cylindrical and bell forms distort the appearance of the fishes, and the ordinary globes furnish, in proportion to their capacity, too limited surface for the absorption of air. All-glass vessels are liable to fracture by uneven expansion and contraction, due to rapid changes in temperature or the effect of the sun rays, and if not soft and well-annealed, by the pressure and weight of the water. Globes and cylinders may also be so placed as to condense the sun rays, and as focusing lenses set fire to inflammable materials. Of the all-glass vessels the rectangular battery jars, though usually more expensive, give the best results. They may be ob- tained in tw r o sizes made of white flint glass; having a capacity of i l 2 and 5 gallons, and are sold with or without brass or iron bases and stands. Thick pieces of felt under them are safeguards against breakage from un- even pressure on the bottoms, when set on flat surfaces, or by scratches. The brass or iron-framed aquaria are by far the best, and when properly constructed the glass sides and the bottom are so neatly joined that little or no cement is required on the inside. They are the strongest and hand- somest, and can be made in any desired size. The foregoing refers to small aquaria, and it is a mooted question whether a number of these, each of distinct character, may not have more charm than one larger aquarium, if space will permit of their proper display, though the larger the aquarium the more likely is the success with fishes. Large aquaria are usually made with heavy iron stiffening frames, slate bases and thick plate or crystal glass, the size limited only by the available space. When the tanks are of too great width they may become obscure and their contents not so easily seen. When they are of too great depth the aerating surface may not be sufficient and the water pressure too great. Consequently a tank of greater width than 24 inches and greater 27 THE FRESHWATER AQUARIUM AND ITS MAINTENANCE height than 22 inches is objectionable. For out-of-door tanks and cis- terns, any size and a variety of materials may be used; but when built of wood, they should be seasoned by a frequent change of water. Slate, soap- stone and cement basins are used, of which more will be stated hereafter. Arranging the Aquarium. The aquarium should be set on a stable support, a stand, table or shelf, preferably facing a northern or north- eastern exposure in the summer, while in the winter it should be placed to get the sunlight two or three hours daily, preferably the morning sun; as it is essential that the aquarium should get a good light or failure will be the inevitable result. If indoors it should be placed at a window or under a skylight admitting the daylight and sunlight but without too much exposure to the direct rays of the sun during the hot summer months. The best success will be had when the light is such as to stimulate the growth of the plants without producing material changes in the tempera- ture of the water. The position at a window also permits of the necessary ventilation and aeration; the slight draught, even when the window is closed, is a protection from excess of coal or illuminating gases and tobacco smoke; and in warm weather, it will moderate the temperature of the water if the direct rays of the sun are excluded. Covers for Aquaria. Experts advocate glass covers for the aquarium having sufficient plant life. The plants will grow more luxuriently, dust will be kept out, froth and bubbles will not form on the surface, and the evaporation will be less rapid. The cover need not fit tightly, but raised about 1 j t _ inch by rubber or cork discs on the upper frame of the aquarium or it may have the corners cut away. The cover will also prevent the single-tailed goldfishes, the ide, tench and other freshwater fishes, from leaping out of the aquarium, a habit which they have inherited from their wild congenet^rs wlW do this at twilight, when the day enemies have retired and those of the night not yet appeared. The double-tailed goldfish can- not leap from the water. Wire gauze or cotton netting over the top of the aquarium will also serve to prevent the leaping out of the fishes. Aquarium Equipment. In the equipment and maintenance of an aquarium cleanliness is the all-abiding law. The interior should be cleaned with water, the glass rubbed with table salt, either on the finger tips or on a soft rag, and then carefully rinsed; no soap or alkaline substances are to be used nor any greasy or soiled vessel employed. When placed in posi- tion, the bottom should be covered with two inches of well washed sand, or grit/(small pebblesj^and covered with small or larger pebbles; this depth being requisite for the proper rooting of the plants. 28 ?. THE FRESHWATER AQUARIUM AND ITS MAINTENANCE Next the plants should be arranged, and for the indoor aquarium Sagittaria, Caba'mba, Vallisneria, Nitella, Potamogeton and Ludwigia, the best generators of oxygen, are to be recommended and should be planted in natural groups, interspersed with a few slips of Anacharis and Fontinalis, to enhance the effect; considerable opportunity being afforded for the dis- play of individual taste either by arrangement with mathematical precision or by mingling in the graceful abandon of nature. These will grow all the year and thrive indoors; and, to permit of shelter to the fishes from too strong light, they should be arranged towards the window, leaving an open space on the inner side in which the fishes may disport themselves. If closely grouped, each kind somewhat by itself, most picturesque water gardens can be produced. The planting is usually done directly in the sand or grit, the lower ends of the plants covered and weighted with pebbles, but it is preferable to plant in low flower pots or dishes, into which a little clean earth or pond mud has been placed, covered with pebbles, so that the plants will not be uprooted when the sand and grit are taken out and cleaned. Sagit- taria and Vallisneria should be planted deeply so that the runners will be covered; the others may be set into the sand or grit without roots, as with some of the plants these will develop, or they will grow without roots. Bunches of Cabamba and other aquatics bound with strips of block tin, as sold by the dealers, should be separated; when planted in that way they will not thrive and soon rot at the lower ends. Cabamba and Cerato- phyllum rarely root in the aquarium but grow quite as well with the ends buried in the pebbles. A few larger pebbles scattered over the top and brook-worn stones between the plants, a pile of rockwork or a piece of turfs tone make a pleas- ing effect, but it is surely questionable taste to introduce the grotesque submerged castles and figurettes so often seen in aquaria. The pebbles permit the humus and precipitations to sift to the bottom, add to the cleanly appearance, permit of the growth ot tiny aquatic plants, and are of benefit in many other ways. When the plants have been put in position, the aquarium should be filled with clean water nearly or quite to the top, by pouring it on wrap- ping paper laid over the plants, that the contents may not be disturbed; and then the plants raised to proper positions. The outside having been cleaned, the aquarium should be permitted to stand a few davs before introducing the fishes, though it is advisable to introduce tadpoles and snails at once, so that the water may clear and the plants begin to take root and accumulate oxygen. 29 THE FRESHWATER AQUARIUM -AND ITS MAINTENANCE The use of feeding dishes is an unsettled question. Some expert fanciers claim that it is best to have the fishes hunt their food among the pebbles; but for the novice thev have the advantage of showing whether the quantity given is correct and all the food consumed after each feeding, an important observation, as all excess should be removed. Stocking the Aquarium. The number of fishes and scavengers which may be safely introduced depends upon the size of the fishes, the conditions under which they have been reared, the quantity of light, the temperature of water, the plant growth, and other circumstances ; but over- stocking should be avoided. A generally accepted rule for the perma- nent aquarium, under the most favorable conditions, is not more than one 2 or 3 inch fish per 2^ to 3 gallons of water, with a tadpole and two snails to each three fishes. Care should also be exercised that the water is of like temperature to that to which the fishes have been accustomed, as any sudden excessive changes are injurious. If they have been kept in cold water, that of the aquarium should be of the same temperature, and assume that of the room alter the fishes have been put into it. This is usually between 50 and 8o° F. In the aquarium, indoors, in the winter, it is easily maintained between 50 and 6o° F., and in summer between 65 and 8o° F. In the open air the fishes survive almost every tempera- ture, even freezing cold, if the ice is broken to prevent suffocation ; while ioo° F. is not injurious if sufficient oxygen is contained in the water and no sudden changes in temperature take place. A moderate equable tem- perature, between 50 and 70 F., is best for the household aquarium, and is easily attained. It has been ascertained that for each 16 degrees of lower temperature water will absorb or hold in suspension double the volume of oxygen liberated by plants ; and, inversely, a corresponding diminution will take place for each 16 degrees of rise in temperature; or that water at say 44 F. will sustain nearly twice as many fishes in comfort as will the same vol- ume at 6o° F., or three times as many as at the summer heat of 76 to 8o° F.; and their number should therefore be diminished as soon as they persist in remaining on the surface sucking in the air and taking the re- quired oxygen directly from the air itself. In changing the fishes to the aquarium they should be gently handled, floated from one vessel to the other, if possible, avoiding violence or need- less fright, as considerate treatment soon makes them less timid and more fully domesticated. Success with goldfishes depends upon cleanliness, a vigorous plant growth to furnish abundant oxygen, intelligent treatment and proper food, sparingly fed. 3° THE FRESHWATER AQUARIUM AND ITS MAINTENANCE Food. The natural food of the goldfish consists of the minute pro- tozoans and crustaceans, algae, insects, larvae and worms contained in all freshwater. In the artificial conditions of domestication and in the aquarium, however, an insufficient amount of this food is obtainable, making feeding necessary ; the best results being obtained when this natural food can be given to them; but in lieu thereof, artificial food may be fed, care being taken to feed in moderation, excess being more danger- ous than a slight insufficiency. Not more should be given than will be immediately consumed, and if any remains uneaten, it should either be re- moved with the lifting-tube or no more given until it has been consumed. Animals under domestication thrive best when sparingly fed, and this also applies to goldfishes and other aquarium pets. The appetite of fishes is greatest in warm weather, as they become sluggish when the water is cold, and in their natural state take little or no food; which should be considered, and their diet regulated in keeping with their natural require- ments. During warm weather they should be fed once each day, but when the water has become cold, only on alternate days, or a smaller quantity given daily with occasional days of abstenence, that they may seek the discarded particles of previous feedings and prevent its becoming sour, with the attendant objectionable results. For the novice, the most readily obtainable and least harmful fish food is the generally used rice wafer. Of this a piece about 3^_ inch square should be fed to each 3 inch fish in summer and a smaller quantity in winter, varied at intervals of a week with other approved prepared gold- fish foods or small particles of cleansed earthworms or ant larvae, and when these can not be obtained with very small pellets of raw scraped beef, each fish receiving but one piece and care taken that none remains uneaten. Bread, cake and similar substances are not proper food for aquarium fishes. Salts. In an aquarium holding say five gallons of water, a half tea- spoonful of table salt or a smaller quantity of epsom or glauber salts should be put about once a fortnight. It is beneficial to the fishes, who take it ravenously, as they have the same craving for saline substances as other animals. The table salt is both a mild antiseptic and a cathartic, and the other salts, cathartics, which are necessary to the fishes in their artificial surroundings, confinement, and the concentrated and highly nutritious forms of their food. Some of the prepared foods contain these salts, but their addition to the water in moderate quantity is always bene- ficial. 31 THE FRESHWATER AQUARIUM AND ITS MAINTENANCE Sea shells, corals and other marine objects should not be put into the freshwater aquarium, though experts favor the introduction of a small quan- tity of lime in some slowly soluble form as necessarv to the existence of the fish and molluscs. This will be treated of hereafter. Advice to Beginners. The novice would do well to first obtain a few of the inexpensive common goldfishes, which are hardy and easily domes- ticated, and study their habits and requirements, before procuring the finely bred Japanese and Chinese varieties. Among the common American and European goldfishes there are many of beautiful forms and markings, rang- ing over almost the entire gamut of colors; from pure irridescent pearly white, lustrous silvery and golden hues, to all the shades and combinations of yellow, red, blue, brown and black. The prevailing colors of all the breeds of the goldfish are bright or dull white and yellowish tints on the abdomen, which change to a lustrous metallic yellow on the sides, and then almost impreceptibly shade into golden yellow, red, vermillion, carmine or the deepest and richest oxblood red. When he has familiarized himself with their care, the novice could select for a five-gallon aquarium, say one Japanese Fringetail, a Fantail, a Comet and a Nymph, none over three inches; but these should not be at once put into a newly established aquarium, and only after he is assured that it will support that number in comfort. These are more easily kept than the more delicate fishes of Chinese and Corean origin. Cleaning the Aquarium. When and how often it is advisable to clean the aquarium is a matter of individual judgment. Green water, even to the extent of obscuring the contents, is not injurious; the fishes thrive better in it than in limpid water; nor is the residuum on the pebbles harm- ful, if objectionable substances are removed either with the dip — or lifting tube or the lower depths of water siphoned with a small rubber hose, which may be guided to all parts of the tank, removing the heavy vitiated water and most of the sediment. If the fishes continue excessively restless, persist in coming to the surface for air, and still avoid the bottom of the tank, possibly due to overfeeding, the introduction of more tadpoles and snails may be required, but should these measures not affect a remedy, thorough siphoning or cleaning is necessary and must be done at once. Diseased Fishes. When a fish becomes diseased, it should be immediately removed and isolated, and, dependent on the nature of the ailment/ either the others quarantined, or the tank and contents cleaned and the healthy fishes returned; the latter course especially if the disease can be traced to unsanitary conditions. A clean surface on the pebbles adds to the beauty of the aquarium and also indicates healthful conditions. 3 2 THE FRESHWATER AQUARIUM AND ITS MAINTENANCE It is a grave mistake to immediately introduce recently acquired fishes into an established aquarium. They should be kept for some time under observation and only introduced when full assurance has been reached that they are free of contamination. Aquatic plants should also be placed in water containing a tablespoonful of Phenol Sodique to the quart of water several hours before being placed into an aquarium; then rinsed in clean water, carefully examined, all decayed parts removed and the leaves cleared of dirt, alga; and conferva;, as serious ailments to the fishes are often pro- duced by inattention to these particulars. Restlessness. When the supply of oxygen is insufficient, the fishes come to the surface gasping for air. Relief may be given them by dipping and pouring back some of the water and by increasing the number of plants, selecting the best oxygenators; but if these measures do not improve their comfort some of the water should be siphoned from the bottom, refilling with fresh aerated water, poured a number of times from one vessel to another, or introduced into the aquarium in a fine spray. While the aquarium should be cleaned when the fishes persist in coming to the surface, this should not always be taken as an indication of unsanitarv con- ditions, as they have the habit of doing this at daybreak and in the evening. The gasping of the fishes on the surface is to take in air with the water, to cause its partial absojrj^nonin the mouth before passing the water into the gills. Excessive restlessness may also be due to a variety of causes; in- sufficient oxygen, the accumulation of objectionable gases in the water, im- purity of the water itself, and the presence of parasites and fungi, too small to be seen. These will be treated of under ailments and remedies. Changes from colder to warmer weather also unfavorably affect the fishes as a portion of the suspended air is thereby expelled from the water; and cloudy weather has some effect, as the plants will not liberate as much oxygen when they lack the stimulus of strong sunlight. It is not advisable to put ice into the aquarium to furnish oxygen or to cool the water; fishes are just as liable to pneumonia as other animals; this being the ailment that kills many of them when transferred from aquaria to tanks in the open air too early in the Spring. Effect of Gases, Fumes and Odors. Authorities on the sub- ject of goldfish culture disagree as to the injurious effects of illuminating and coal gases, tobacco smoke, and the dust borne by the wind or raised by sweeping. Water readily absorbs fumes and odors, and if these are excessive, they cannot be otherwise than injurious, though with care and forethought no further precautions need be taken. The hands should not 33 THE FRESHWATER AQUARIUM AND ITS MAINTENANCE be put in the water, least of all after smoking; the aquarium should be covered when sweeping, and the room frequently aired or ventilated in mild weather. The dust may be removed from the surface of the water with a piece of clean blotting paper, but it soon settles to the bottom and serves as food for the scavengers and forms a part of the humus or residuum on the sand or pebbles. When the humus layer becomes thick, it may be injurious, and should be removed with the dipping-tube, the water siphoned, or the aquarium cleaned. In an experimental aquarium con- taining twenty gallons of water, this humus had formed fully half an inch thick, the water not having been changed for eighteen months, yet the fishes were perfectly healthy and contented. It is best to remove it, how- ever, as it is the culture medium of parasites and fungi, and it is not advisable to leave it so long in the aquarium. A piece of charcoal floating on the water or weighted and hidden among the plants serves as a deodorizer and mild antiseptic, and can be introduced to advantage. Alg^. Algae on the glass may be removed with a brush or a piece of felt on a stick or rod. It is advisable, however, to leave it on the sides which do not obstruct the view, as it aids in screening the fishes from ex- cessive light and in keeping the water in good condition. A fish showing signs of illness, will often speedily recover when removed to a tank filled with green water, as it contains not only desirable food, but also beneficial medicinal properties. A very little permanganate of potassium will check the growth of Algae, if this is found to be objectionable. Destruction of Plants. Even when sufficiently fed, the fishes will sometimes tear and destroy some of the aquatic plants, feeding on the younger shoots; but this is often done in sheer mischief and wantonness and the remedy is to introduce more of those plants which are unmolested. It may also be noticed that the fishes take the sand and smaller pebbles into their mouths; they do this to feed on the tiny water plants growing upon them, and it is not always an indication of insufficient feeding. In conclusion it would be well to recapitulate the principles leading to success with the properly conditioned aquarium, any mistakes of which will surely lead to failure: — absolute cleanliness with everything pertaining to the aquarium; proper and abundant light; a vigorous growth of desir- able aquatic plants; absence of decaying vegetation, a proper balance of plant and animal life, with preferably a preponderance of the former, ab- sence of parasites and diseases sufficient scavengers; and care in feeding the proper food. 34 THE FRESHWATER AQUARIUM AND ITS MAINTENANCE Cruelty to Fishes. All admirers of the aquarium should consider it a duty to direct attention to the pernicious practise of keeping fishes in small fish globes. Millions of goldfishes have been killed by slow torture in this regretable precursor of the modern aquarium, and by other uninten- tional cruelties. Many instances can be recalled of globes containing too many fishes, without a plant, hungin the glaring sun; to improper feeding and other practises which a little knowledge of the subject would prevent. That the common goldfish is tenacious of life and will often survive abuses for a long time is no excuse for violating the laws of its nature. Other animals are protected by laws and philanthropic societies, but these seem to interest themselves but little in the fauna of the aquarium. It is the dealer in fishes who is responsible for the survival of fish globes. They are the cheapest vessels that can be offered to purchasers, and he still has them for sale, rather than explain that the globe is an objectionable form of fish receptacle, superseded by better ones, and that success with its use is hardly possible. He would find that his sales would not diminish from candor and expressions of the truth. If he would explain the laws of balance in the aquarium, it is certain that the success which his customers will have would result in further exciting interest, while an unsuccessful attempt will discourage and may lead to the aban- donment of all hope of success. Means should be devised for placing simple correct information with- in the reach of everyone ; then the aquarium would be much more popu- lar than it now is, and this esthetic pleasure in the household would be within the reach of almost every one. Experts in the keeping of the aquarium should interest themselves in this subject for the benefit of the general public. The fish globe should be used only as a temporary receptacle or hospital, but it were best if this torture chamber came entirely out of use. 35 CHAPTER III. Goldfish Breeds THE COMMON GOLDFISH Both the American and European common goldfishes have elongated bodies slightly flattened on the sides, the latter being the slightlv longer FIG. 6. — The Common American Goldfish Curassius auratus, var. ainericanus and more slender fish. Figs. 6 and J. The scaleless head is usually short with broad forehead and wide interorbital space, blunt snout, full and well- defined lips, erect nostrils, clear eyes and the opercular or gill covers of a burnished metallic lustre. The body has an even covering of uniformly FIG. 7 — The European Goldfish Carassius auratus, var. europensis: as known in the eastern United States markets. sized scales having a bright, enameled surface. There are two sets of paired and three single fins including the tail. The color varies in differ- ent fishes and may be white, silvery-grey, olivate, golden or orange-yellow, 39 GOLDFISH BREEDS red and brown or a combination of these colors, sometimes associated with black. It is hardy and tenacious of life, grows to large size, often attain- ing a length of 16 inches and reaching an age of 12 to 16 years, with re- ported instances of even greater size and longevity. It is prolific and will thrive under trying and adverse circumstances in any Stillwater pool, cis- tern, tank or aquarium. It will withstand almost any temperature unless deprived of sufficient oxygen or subjected to sudden changes and may be transported over long distances. It is easily domesticated, and like its progenitor, the Crucian carp, will survive considerable periods out of the water in wet waterplants, to keep the gills moist. When the fish has a grey or olivate hue, it is known as a silverfish, but these colorings may not be permanent and at some time either become mottled or entirely change to golden hues; though this rarely occurs with white or albinoid fishes; and when it does is usually just before or during the breeding season, thereby proving that the fish was only a dull colored, colorless or uncolored goldfish. Sometimes the color is entirely white with an irridescent or rainbow lustre. These are known as pearlfishes, their oftentimes red eyes proving them to be albinos. When they have almost transparent scales and bodies, as sometimes happens with the white or very light-colored fishes, hybrids crossed with Japanese or Chinese stock, they are called transparent goldfishes, and these offer most interesting study in the aquarium, as all the functions of their existence may be observed through their transparent sides. Others of the goldfishes have a deep, resplendent blue-brown color on the sides and so dark a tone on the back as to appear to be black, with the scales sometimes outlined with metallic purple-bronze or bluish tints. These are commonly known as black goldfishes and are not highly prized, though a close study of the beautiful and fleeting changes of color should lead to a higher appreciation. These fishes usually lose their colors and assume those of the ordinary goldfish. All the common goldfishes are at first of a dull greyish-brown or olivate color. Another fine distinction is in the shape of the head. When its out- line, from the snout to the dorsal fin, forms an even upward curve, the head somewhat flattened on the sides, with the lower side of the body, from the gill covers to the caudal fin, nearly on a straight line, the fish is known as a Ram's nose; and when the head is very broad and rounded on the sides, with thick lips, is slightly depressed at the interorbital space and where the head joins the trunk, and the back very much rounded, the whole fish having a porcine appearance, it is known as a Hog's nose. These characteristics have been bred by the Japanese and Chinese, but 40 GOI.DI-'JSII BREEDS sometimes occur with the common goldfish, probably due to an admixture of an oriental strain or a variation in or from the parental type, to which this fish is particularly liable. The desirable characteristics of the common goldfish are perfection of form, head and eye; fine, clean even and symmetrical fin development; evenly imbricated and uninjured scales; a clean and healthy general appear- ance, with distinct and brilliant colors. Perfect development of the finely bred varieties are hereafter described; but the more general imperfections in these fishes consist of slight mal- formations of body and fins, and too great length of body in the short- bodied breeds or too short-bodies in those which should be long and slender. Some imperfect fishes of the double-tailed breeds have the upper lobe of the tail single and the lower lobe double. These are known as "Tripod-Tails". Others have the otherwise double tail joined at the top or margin and are known as "Web-tails", while when the double tail is joined at the centre and flattened on a horizontal plane, they are known as "Dolphin-tails". Another frequent imperfection of some breeds is a single instead of a double anal fin or the anal fin may be entirely absent. Some have the main ray of the dorsal fin crooked, due to the " hinge " or interspinous bone of the first ray being above the surface of the back, which prevents the fish carrying the dorsal fin erect, or the dorsal fin may be too short and consist of but three to six rays. By careful breeding more or less fixed varieties may be produced, but none of these forms are permanent, as the goldfish is naturally inclined to variations under domestication or will revert to the original stock except under most careful breeding and selection, and what may be considered imperfections in some breeds are desired characteristics in others, as will be seen in the descriptions of the oriental goldfishes hereafter given. Except only the Comet, the finer breeds should have very short heads, short bodies, evenly rounded backs, long pendant fins, small scales and large eyes. THE JAPANESE AND CHINESE GOLDFISHES The culture of the finely bred goldfishes has been conducted in the warmer parts of Japan and in China for centuries, all the varieties now known in the United States having been derived from these sources. The original parent stock was a Cyprinoid similar to the Crucian carp, with which albinism is of frequent occurrence, the colors of albinoid fishes of every species being bright orange and golden hues with occasionally white or uncolored individuals. By careful selection these colors were 4' GOLDFISH BREEDS made permanent in the goldfish, though the Oriental breeders did not confine themselves to this but developed combinations embracing every shade and color combination. Variations in body and head, difference in eye, fin and scale were also developed to such an extent as to produce all those strange varieties and almost incredible monstrosities which can be bred in all domesticated animals. After the desired type had been established, breeding was carried forward generation by generation, until those wide differences were pro- duced and perpetuated which now characterize the various breeds of Japanese and Chinese Goldfishes; but China, even more than Japan, is so truly the land of the bizarre that this is also most evident in their gold- fishes; and, to the uninitiated, the forms and colors developed by them would appear like nightmares or caricatures of the fish when judged from the standard of European and American breeders. Every conceivable variation in bodily appearance, head, snout, mouth, eye, fins, tail and color has been developed and bred so as to force the conclusion that nothing is impossible to the Chinese breeder. All the varieties are not known in the United States, as some especially of the Chinese breeds, have probably never been exported or failed to survive the long journey; but the widely diversified appearance of those with which we are familiar leads to the ex- pectation of even greater marvels as the result of that Oriental patience and perseverance which is proverbial in the Mongolian race. By methods apparentlv known only to themselves they have succeeded in developing and perpetuating malformations of structure which entirely change the appearance of every part of the fish. Some varieties of their goldfishes have the bodies modified in every conceivable way; shortened, elongated, rounded, curved, crescent-shaped, triangular in section or twisted and other- wise distorted into strange forms; with the dorsal fin sometimes only half its normal length or entirely absent. Others have the paired fins length- ened and abnormally shaped, the anal double or absent; the caudal of every conceivable form; the head so much shortened and the snout mal- formed as to produce an almost bulldog appearance, or covered by papillo- matous growths, the eyes almost wholly projecting beyond the orbits, to appear like globular or tubular projections, with the pupils pointing side- wise, forward or straight upward. Others have the scales raised from the sides to give an appearance like a ruffled fowl; some are so transparently scaled as to appear entirely scaleless or have a few scales on an otherwise ap- parently scaleless body. The marking and colors are equally fantastic and baroque and show every grotesque and fanciful design and color conbina- tion. No single detail seems to have been omitted that could produce the wierdest conceptions of what might be considered a diseased imagination. 42 GOLDFISH BRKEDS To find beauty in this wild fantasm is surely "an acquired taste" but their rarity and singular appearance, their extreme contrast with everv other kind of goldfish, led to the Chinese varieties being the highest prized of any of the aquarium fishes. In the following descriptions and illustrations the Japanese and Chinese goldfishes will be treated of in the order in which they differ from the ordinary goldfishes and from each other. It may be here stated that the racial characteristics of the Japanese and Chinese are clearly reflected in their goldfish breeding; the innate, though often oddly expressed, ap- preciation of the beautiful of the Japanese race, and the search for the bizarre, the grotesque, and often to the Occidental mind the horrid, on the part of the Chinese. It should also be premised that the illustrations are accurate, unflattered drawings from life of the most perfect fishes of their respective kinds, seen or owned by the author, except in a very few instances of those varieties which are now extinct in the Eastern States and for which descrip- tions and sketches were obtained from their one-time owners, to whom credit is given. Nearly all of these different breeds have been fully accli- mated and most of them are American bred. Early naturalists distinguished between the few then known toy varieties of the goldfishes, of Chinese and Japanese origin, by more or less appropriate Latin and Greek descriptive designations, which Dr. E. Zernecke applied to the now generally known varieties and added others. For instance, the Japanese double-tailed fishes were known as Carassius auratus, variitas japonicus, (Japanese variety of the goldfish); but which did not designate the Fringetail or Fantail and applied as well as to the Comet, Nymph or others of Japanese origin and derivation. Dr. Zernecke proposed Carassius auratus, var. japonicus, bicaudalis, (double-tailed Japa- nese variety of the goldfish); which would not include the single-tailed varieties, but could be applied to both the Fringetail and the Fantail. The following nomenclature for the toy varieties now known and bred in the United States is proposed and here adopted with the hope that it will meet with general acceptance: — The Common American Goldfish — Carassius auratus, var. amcricanus. The Common European Goldfish — Carassius auratus, var. europensis. The Japanese Comet Goldfish — Carassius auratus, var. japonicus simplex. The Japanese Fringetail Goldfish — Carassius auratus, var. japonicus pendulibicaudali.. The Japanese Fantail Goldfish — Carassius auratus, var. japonicus erectibicaudalis. The Japanese Nymph Goldfish — Carassius auratus var. japonicus, nymp/ia. The Japanese Barnacled Goldfish — Carassius auratus, var. japonicus verrucosus. The Japanese Hooded or Lion-headed Goldfish — Carassius auratus, var. japonicus leocephalus. 4-3 GOLDFISH BREEDS The Chinese Telescope Goldfish — Carassius auratus, var. chinensis macrophthalmus. The Chinese Mottled or Variegated Goldfish — Carassius auratus, var : chinensis variegatus . The Chinese Fringetail Telescope Goldfish — Carassius auratus, var. chinensis pendu/i- bi cauda lis. The Chinese Moor or Black Telescope Goldfish — Carassius auratus, var. chinensis maur us. The Chinese Tiger Telescope Goldfish — Carassius auratus, var. chinensis tigrinus. The Chinese Lettered Telescope Goldfish — Carassius auratus, var. chinensis scriptus. The Chinese Eggfish — Carassius auratus, var. chinensis oviform is. The Chinese Blue Telescope Goldfish — Carassius auratus, var. chinensis cyanheus. The Chinese Celestial Telescope Goldfish — Carassius aujatus, var. chinensis uranoscopus. The Chinese Tumbler Telescope Goldfish — Carassius au.atus, var. chinensis saltator. The adoption of these polynomials to designate the numerous arti- ficial variations of the Goldfish, Carassius auratus^ is done without inten- tion of conflicting with the codes of nomenclature of zoologists. THE JAPANESE COMET GOLDFISH This variety was bred from the ordinary goldfish by crossing with the Japanese Fringetail or with fishes derived of this stock, and authorities claim first known in the United States about the year 1872. The efforts of the breeders were directed to the production of a pronouncedly elon- FIG. 8. — Japanese Comet Goldfish Carassius aura/us var.japonicus simplex Two-thirds life size. gated body and tail, a long and narrow head with pointed snout, erect nostrils, thin lips and flat eyes; small uniform scales, long and erect dorsal 44 GOLDFISH BRKKDS and long pendant pectoral, ventral and anal fins. Of these the pectorals and ventrals are paired and the dorsal, anal and caudal fins single; the desired characteristic being a very slender, flat-sided and long-drawn fish, as the well-applied name would indicate. The colors are those of the ordinary goldfish. The Comet is a most elegant, graceful and dainty fish, very hardy and easily bred; the personification of grace and rapidity of movement. Since its introduction, American breeds have produced a considerable FIG. 9 — Transparently Scaled Japanese Comet Goldfish. Lateral and frontal views. Two-thirds life size. variation of the scaled parent type, and fanciers now distinguish between Ram's nose and Hog's nosescaled and scaleless(transparently-scaled)Comets, having either full, broad tails or with the tails very considerably bifurcated and spread, the most prized and rarely to be obtained being scaleless sharp- nosed Comets of a deep oxblood red color on the body and white fins with very long pendant lower fins, erect dorsals and widely spread single tails, either full or bifurcated, carried straight out behind and considerably longer than the body of the fish. These command high prices and are in beautiful contrast to other finely bred goldfishes. THE JAPANESE FRINGETAIL GOLDFISH Carasszus auratus, var.japonicus pendulibicaudalis. Figs, roand ti. Of the finely bred aquarium fishes the beau-ideal is unquestionably the truly magnificent Japanese Fringetail. No other variety has so richly rewarded the efforts of the breeder as this wonderful specimen achieved by careful selections on the lines of beauty, symmetry, grace and elegance of +5 GOLDFISH BREEDS color. Patient, discriminating labor with thousands of generations has pro- duced in the perfect Fringetail the handsomest of all goldfishes. The long, lace-like fins and tail, the rich burnished metallic lustre, the marvelous FIG. 10 — Adult Japanese Fringetail Goldfish Carassius auratus , var. japonicus pendulibicaudalis. Two-thirds life size. brilliancy of color, the finely modeled form and the perfection or graceful movement are truly tvpified in this justly prized fish. The full develop- ment of the beauty of the species is only attained upon maturity; although the fancier can discern in quite young fishes, those that give promise of future perfect development. The fine mature Fringetail is a small-scaled, short-bodied and short- headed, thick, almost egg-shaped fish with evenly rounded sides, having 46 GOLDFISH BREEDS FIG. ii — Young Japanese Fringetail Goldfish. Two-thirds lite size. all the very long pendant fins paired, except the long, wavy and lace-like dorsal; and an immense delicate drooping double tail, divided quite to the base and floating behind the body like a great mass of most dainty lace; much longer than the body of the fish. The two separate tails are exactly alike in conformation, length, droop and texture. By crossing with the Chinese transparently scaled fishes, Ameri- can breeders have produced a larger black-eyed transparently scaled fish thatis handsomer than the Japanese Fringetail,- though otherwise it has all the characteristics of the im- ported fish; but is even more deli- cate and dainty in fin and tail de- velopment and more pronounced in color. In moving through the water the stately appearance of the fully developed Fringetail is most graceful, majestic and fairy-like; the beautiful tail, floating behind and following every movement, is carried as though the fish were proud of its almost regal appearance. THE JAPANESE FANTAIL GOLDFISH Carasszus auratus, var.japanicus erectibicaudalis. Fig. 12. This beautiful fish has certain distinguishing characteristics which clearly mark it as a distinct variety, though in many particulars it bears a close resemblance to the Fringetail. Authorities agree on these distinctions which are recognized by fanciers. The Japanese breeders developed de- cided differences in conformation of body and fins which are very apparent in finely bred specimens, though these are more rare than is generally sup- posed, as most of the goldfishes known as Fantails are usually Fringetails with either short or imperfectly developed tails; or web-tailed Japanese fishes. The Fantail is a scaled short-bodied fish, very thick, round-backed and deep-bellied, of almost oval outline; its body being best described as of short pumpkin-seed-form, with the horizontal longer diameter of slightly greater length than a true oval, and so formed that an imaginary line trom the upper lip to the base of the tail would show the upper and lower halves of the body of almost the same conformation. It has a short, broad head, distinctly hognosed, a large mouth with full lips, erect nostrils and eyes like the ordinary goldfish, but larger. The long and erect dorsal fin sits far back on the spine, all the other fins being paired; the pectorals and 47 GOLDFISH BREEDS ventrals are long and pendant, the double anal fins are long and extend almost straight backward, while the broad double tail, which is the princi- pal characteristic of the fish, is divided quite to the base and the two dis- tinct tails stand directly vertical on the same plane and are carried straight FIG. 12 — Japanese Fantail Goldfish Carassiits aura/us. Tar. japonicus erectibicaudalis. Two-thirds life size. out behind the body without the least drop or droop; the upper and lower lobes being of exactly the same length so that a perpendicular line from the end of the upper will exactly touch the end of the lower lobe on each side. This is never the case with the imperfectly developed Fringetail; the upper lobes are always the longer, and the relative position of the double tail is not directly vertical or parallel to each other but at a decided angle when the fish is viewed from the rear, while the perfectly developed Fantail has the appearance of having two separate single tails placed side by side. The tail of the Fantail never exceeds the body in length. The colors are identical with those of the Fringetail, but the scales are larger and usually coarser; this variety also having no transparently scaled members, either of pure or crossed stock. It is a characteristically handsome fish though not as "showy" as the Fringetail. 48 (iOLDFISH BREKDS THE JAPANESE NYMPH GOLDFISH I ai assius auratus, var.japonicus nympha. Fig*, i j and 14. With all finely bred domesticated animals there are always some individuals that have a tendency to partially revert to the ancestral type. This frequently occurs with goldfishes, as many of the progeny of the FIG. 13 — Scaled Japanese Nymph Goldfish Carassiiis auratus, var.japonicus nympha Two-thirds life size finest strains develop characteristics different from their parents and clearlv indicate the type from which the breed was derived. An instance of this is the Nymph goldfish, the name of which would indicate some such thought on the part of the breeders. It is now recognized as a distinct variety and may be bred by crossing the Comet and the Fringetail, but is more usually accidentally produced from Fringetail stock; being what is known, in the parlance of the breeder as a "sport." The finest specimens have all the characteristics of the Fringetail with a single Comet-like tail. Fine speci- mens of the Nymph are very handsome, having long pen- dant pectoral and ventral fins, FIG. 14 — Transparently-scaled Japanese Nymph Goldfish Two-thirds life size 49 GOLDFISH BREEDS a very high dorsal and a straight single anal fin; a delicate, very long single tail, and the head, eyes, small scales and general conformation, as well as the rich lustrous colors of the Fringetail. The body is shorter, broader and fuller than the Comet, those with almost circular flat-sided bodies are the highest prized. In the aquarium they make an agreeable contrast to the other fine breeds and have an individuality of their own which warrants their being classed as a distinct variety. Some fanciers still consider them single-tailed Fringetails, but the general consensus of opinion is that these fishes should be classed as Nymphs, the most typical having short flat-sided bodies and straight Comet-like tails, though some Nymphs have tails of such great length that they of necessity droop. These may be considered a separate variety, and are quite as much prized as the straight tailed fishes. They occur both scaled and transparently scaled. THE JAPANESE HOODED OR LION-HEADED GOLDFISH Carassius auratus, var.japonicus leocephalus Fig. 15. The form, scales, fins and color of this peculiar Japanese or Corean goldfish resemble the Fringetail but the dorsal fin is absent; the distinctive difference consists of a peculiar growth on and over the sides of the head, FIG. 15. Adult Japanese Hooded or Lion-headed Goldfish Carassius auratus, var.japonicus leocephalus. Two-thirds life size 5° GOLDFISH BREKDS surrounding the orbits, so that the head of the fish has an appearance similar to that of the "Owl" breed of pigeon, surmounted by a hoodlike excrescence of bright pink or of crimson color. This papillomatous growth consists of rounded tubercles, about pinhead size, evenly placed and entirly covering the head. This peculiar goldfish was described by Mr. Hugo Mulertt who im- ported a number from Europe, and has also recently been reintroduced into the United States. Fine specimens are of pearl-white color on the sides with occasional regularly placed single brilliant red scales; others are of golden color, but all have the characteristic crimson papilla; on and over the head. Occasional fine specimens are devoid of anal fins. In writing of the "Corean breed," known as the "Maruko" or "Ranchiu," now largely bred in Japan, Prof. S. Watase states that it has an exceedingly short body, being in some instances almost globular in form. The dorsal fin is entirely absent and the head is distinctive of this breed in having rough-looking protuberances of the skin which often attain a considerable size and length. Two specimens of this fish were shown in alcohol in the Japanese section at the Chicago World's Fair, as they did not survive the voyage to the United States. These had developed the peculiar growth into long and hair-like manes and were designated by the Japanese as "Lions." No others were seen by the author until recently and these had the papillomatous growths and general characteristics of the illustrated fish. Dr. Hugh M. Smith of the Bureau of Fisheries at Washington, during his visit to Japan saw and had drawings made of some remarkably devel- oped fishes of this breed. THE JAPANESE BARNACLED OR PARADISE GOLDFISH Carassius auratus, imr. japonicus verrucosus Fig. 16. This exceedingly rare Japanese goldfish has the body and fin development of the Telescope, with the large tubular eyes pointed forward; a shortened head and long snout, moderately large paired fins and a double tail. The skin is cov- ered with wartlike growths or papilla?, which cause the Fig. 16— Japanese Barnacled Paradise Goldfish 1 • _ ra j_ r rnrvP anr | Carassius auralus, var.japonicus verrucosus. Two-thirds life-sire till" bLdlCb IO CUTVC dllU 5' GOLDFISH BREEDS stand from the sides as though they were ruffled, and giving to the fish somewhat the appearance of being covered with barnacles. The scales are unevenly imbricated, so that they appear somewhat scattered, like those of the mirror carp; although they entirely cover the body of the fish. The singular appearance of these fishes led American breeders to suppose them to be diseased, but later they were recognized as a variety of the Japanese Telescope, the distinctive peculiarity being the scale formation. The colors are mottled red and white with black and white fins and tail. So far as is known, these fishes are now extinct in the Eastern section of the United States, the last importation having been received in 1897. Recent repeated inquiries and efforts to obtain breed- ing fishes by direct importation have been unsuccessful, leaving it an open question whether they should be recognized as a separate breed or an accidental variation which was lost. THE CHINESE TELESCOPE GOLDFISHES This singular breed is of Chinese origin but is also bred in Japan. In it may be observed the peculiarities of the Chinese breeder and his desire to produce abnormalities. The head and snout are considerably shortened; the body is rounded and egg-shaped, the dorsal fin erect and set far back on the spine; all the lower fins are paired; and the double tail is divided to its base and carried straight out at a downward angle. The vertebral column is also curved downward behind in an ab- normal way to produce a hunchbacked condition. There are both scaled and transparently-scaled Telescopes, the for- mer being generally recognized as of Japanese breeding. As the name implies, the principal peculiarity is the develop- ment of the projecting eyes, Fig. 17, which have the character of spheres, ovoids, 4. Chinese Telescope truncated cones or segmented spheres set upon the sides of the head, the eyeballs appearing to almost wholly project from the orbits, and the cornea forming a seg- ment of a much smaller sphere than does the eyeball proper. As a result of this 6. Chinese Celestial peculiarity, the anterior portion of the eye Telescope Goldfishes as j mQre acute h h j posterior spheres, with pupils o r turned upwards. portion. The iris is also very distinctly fig. 17— The Eyes of outlined. In addition to the abnormally Goldfishes. ' I. Common Goldfish, Fringetail, etc. — flat eyes. 2. Chinese Telescope Goldfishes — as spheres. 3. Chinese Telescope Goldfishes — as ovoids. Goldfishes cated cones. 5 . Chinese Telescope Goldfishes— as segment- ed spheres. 52 GOLDFISH BREEDS shaped body, projecting eyes and peculiar droop of the tail, fanciers prize the remarkable colorings developed by the orientals. The pre- vailing colors of the scaled Japanese fish, Fig. 18 are those of the ordinary goldfish, but most oddly placed. Certain fishes have clear golden-red bodies with the backs and all the fins jet-black and have black eyeballs; others have white bodies and deep-red fins and red eyeballs FIG. i 8 — Scaled Japanese Telescope Goldfish Carassius auratus, var.japonicus macrophthalmus . Two-thirds life-size with black irides; some have red or golden-yellow bodies and white fins with red, white and black eyes; and others pearly-white bodies, and fins mottled with red, and red and black eyes, though none of these colorings are necessarily permanent. The colors of these fishes are so fantastic that French, German and American authorities class them as much by these color peculiarities as by changes in body structure. The following are the most generally known of the Chinese telescopic- eyed goldfishes bred in the United States: THE CHINESE MOTTLED OR VARIEGATED TELESCOPE GOLDFISH Carassius auratus, var. chine nsis veriegatus. Figs. 19, 20, 21 and 22 This variety of the Telescope is commonly known as the Calico, as best describing its fantastic markings. The body is short and thick ; the spine has a decided backward curve; the snout is formed to give the short 53 GOLDFISH BREEDS head a pugnacious appearance ; the mouth is placed almost vertically at the front of the head ; the lips are distinct; the nostrils small but erect, and the eyes very large and usually disclike or tubular in form. The FIG. 19 — Adult Chinese Mottled Telescope Goldfish Carassius auratus,var. chinensis veriegatus. Lateral view. Two-thirds life size dorsal fin is high and short; all the lower fins are paired, long and very broad ; the tail is double and the two separate tails are carried at an angle FIG. 20 — Adult Chinese Mottled Telescope Goldfish Dorsal view. Two-thirds life size 54 GOLDFISH BREEDS to each other, straight, drooping and at an angle with the body. Its markings are most peculiar and consist of irregular blotches of all shades and shapes, distributed at random over the entire fish, including body, fins FIG. 21 — Young Chinese Mottled Telescope Goldfish Lateral view. Life size and tail. It is so transparently scaled that the flesh tints, which are often of a pronounced bluish hue, may be seen through the skin ; upon which FIG. 22 — Young Chinese Mottled Telescope Goldfish Frontal view. Life si?e the red, yellow, brown, blue and black mottlings show most conspicuous- ly. This is a handsome, most peculiar and highly prized fish. GOLDFISH BREEDS THE CHINESE FRINGETAIL TELESCOPE GOLDFISH Larass/us auratus, var. chinensis pcndulibicaudalis. Fig. 23 This variety has the body, eyes and fin development of the Calico, but differs in its markings. The transparent scales are invisible and the colors are most oddly distributed in patches of beautiful oxblood red, white and bluish tints over the head and body. The long, delicate, filmy, lacelike fins and beautiful long double tail are usually white. FIG. 23 —Chinese Fringetail Telescope Goldfish Carassiits auratus, var. chinensis pendulihicaudalis. Life size Sometimes the fish is almost or entirely white, with delicate pink and blue tones, and so transparent that almost all of the internal organs and the skeleton are visible, a most interesting, curious and dainty so-called Transparent Fringetail Telescope Goldfish. These fishes are derived from the same parent stock as the Mottled Telescope and are bred from im- ported fishes. Oftentimes some of the young of Mottled Telescopes ex- hibit this character and are greatly admired, not only for their beautiful colors but also for their spheroidal eyes, which are usually deep blue in color. The Chinese Fringetail Telescopes have most wonderful development of fins and tail, so dainty and lacelike as to seem too delicate to serve their uses. These are as long and pendant as those of the most perfect Fringe- tails. The illustration is of an 18 months old fish owned by the author. 56 GOLDFISH BREEDS THE CHINESE MOOR TELESCOPE GOLDFISH Carussius auratus,var. Chinensit maurut Fig 24 This magnificent variety, known as the Moor or Black Telescope, is a very rare and deservedly highly prized fish. Its general conformation is that of the Chinese Telescope, but the fins and tail are usually longer. FIG. 24 — Chinese Moor Telescope Goldfish Carassius auratus, var. chinensis maurns Two-thirds life size The distinctive coloring is permanent in purely bred fishes and consists of an even covering over the entire fish, including the eyes, fins and tail, of a wonderfully rich bluish-black hue, so delicate and even in tone as to appear as though the entire fish were covered with the richest blue-black velvet, the magnificent sheen of which is such that one could expect to feel the very texture of the fabric. With many of the American bred Moors, however, the black color is not permanent. The Moor is always a scaled fish, though these, due to the intensely dark color, are usually invisible. Sometimes in fishes bred from Japanese stock, the colors are black on the back and sides, with a delicate bluish or reddish-bronze tone on the abdomen, these scales have the appearance of being outlined with golden-bronze. The fishes so marked never retain their black color, but at some time in their existence, assume the darker colors of the goldfish. It is accepted among breeders that young Moors 57 GOLDFISH BREEDS which are white on the under side of the body, between the fins, are more likely to retain their black color than those which are yellow in this region. No fish is handsomer in the aquarium than a fine Moor, as the beauti- ful form and color not only contrast with the other fishes, but tend to bring their brilliant colors more prominently into notice. THE CHINESE PIEBALD OR TIGER TELESCOPE GOLDFISH Carassius auratus, var. chinensis tigrinis Figs. 25 and 26 This fish has a most curious appearance both in form and markings. The tubular eyes are developed to a remarkable degree, often extending FIG. 25 — Chinese Tiger Telescope Goldfish Carassius auratus, var. chinensis tigrinus Lateral view Two-thirds life size beyond the snout, directed sidewise and projecting y 2 to $/ % inches from the orbits. In transverse section the fish would appear almost triangular, with the flattened abdomen as the base. The body is short, thick and malformed, scant of fins and tail, and the curious markings, from which the fish de- rives its name, are the pink and blue tones of the flesh under the transparent scales, as the prevailing color, overlaid with streaks and patches of black, dark brown, red and dusky grey on the back, sides and fins, with a lemon-yellow abdomen. But two good specimens of this breed have been seen by the author; European authorities depict them as characteristically marked with narrow bands of contrasting colors. FIG. 26 — Chinese Tiger Telescope Goldfish Frontal view Two-thirds life size 58 GOLDFISH BRKKDS THE CHINESE LETTERED TELESCOPE GOLDFISH Carassius auratus, var.chintnsis script us. Kig. 27 Another instance of the patient labors of the Chinese in developing desired characteristics in the goldfish is evident in the Lettered Telescope, a very rare fish, as but two specimens, both females, have come to the knowledge of the author, both owned in Philadelphia. No recent author- ity describes this fish, the following is a description of the two mentioned specimens. The form and eye development is similar to that of the Tiger Tele- scope, though the body is rather more rounded and not so triangular in section. The eyes are distinctly tubular and directed forward at each side of the snout with a slightly upward trend, and the cornea is also directed forward and slightly upward. The head and snout are very short, the FIG. 27 — Chinese Lettered Telescope Goldfish Carassius auratus, var. chinensis script us. Two-thirds life size bodv thick and quite as broad as high, with the fins and double tail fairly well developed, and the pectorals and ventrals extend almost straight out at the sides of the fish. The anal fin is double, as is also the tail, which is dis- tinctly spread and divided to the base. The anal fins are used like the ventrals in swimming. The chief peculiarity of this fish consists of the colors and markings. The transparently scaled body is dark olive-green on the back, citron- vellow on the sides, and yellowish-white under the abdomen ; covered with brown markings which have the appearance of Chinese characters written in sepia. 59 GOLDFISH BREEDS It is a most curious, almost repulsive fish and odd-looking aquarium inmate, rather more remarkable for oddity than beauty. See Cuvier and Valenciennes description of this fish, the ^uen-yu, and also that of de Sauvigny. THE CHINESE BLUE TELESCOPE GOLDFISH Carassius auratus, var. cliinensis cyancus The fish is described as a scaled Telescope, silvery on the abdomen flushed with rose-pink, a rich azure blue on the back and sides, the whole fish having a metallic lustre. Those seen or owned by the author are transparently scaled, with a velvety, ultra-marine blue color on the back, reddish-blue transparent lower sides and a blue-white or greyish abdo- men, with a dark bluish-brown or black dorsal fin, white or grey lower fins and dusky-grey or brownish double tail. The eyeballs are promi- nent and of a blue color, the whole color tone being bluish and bluish brown with local tones of pinkish blue and bluish-white. This is a handsome Chinese goldfish and is greatly admired. The author has never seen one sufficiently perfect to serve as a type. The colors are best seen when the fish is viewed in a strong light, together with brilliantly colored goldfishes. THE CHINESE CELESTIAL TELESCOPE GOLDFISH Carassius, auratus, var. chinesis uranoscopus. Figs. 28 and 29 The most curious of the highly bred Oriental goldfishes is the Celes- tial Telescope or Stargazer. This fish has an extremely shortened snout, FIG. 28— Chinese Celestial Telescope Goldfish Carassius auratus, var. chinensis uranoscopus. Dorsal view. Two-thirds life size 60 GOLDFISH BRFKDS with the large spheroidal projecting eyes, having very small irides, turned upward over the head, so that the gaze of the fish is always directed to the surface. Its eyesight is very defective. The dorsal fin has been entirely eliminated, as the scales are evenly imbricated over the back and sides. The body is egg-shaped, very tapering at the tail. The fins are broad and pendant, and the tail is carried at a slight downward angle and very widely spread to maintain the balance of the fish. Its movements are slow and languid. Due to its fixed upward gaze, the fish has acquired the habit of carrying its body at an angle, with the snout and eyes usually the highest points of the plane. European authorities depict this fish as "dolphin-tailed," and without anal fins. These would not be as highly prized by Amer- ican fanciers. It is stated that this fish is bred in jars to which the light is ad- mitted through a slit in the lid or cover, thus inducing the fry to gaze upward for both light and food. It is considered to be sacred and is kept in many of the Oriental tem- ples, probably on account of its constant heavenward gaze. The Celestial Telescope is the most difficult of the imported gold- fishes to rear or to keep alive in the aquarium, the author having no in- formation of its successful breeding in the United States for successive generations and knows of but three authenticated instances of a long sur- vival of the imported fish. THE CHINESE EGGFISH Carasstus auratus, var. ckinensis oviformis, Kig. 30 Several recent German authorities mention the Chinese Eggfish, a variety of the scaled goldfish which resembles the Ya-Tan-Yu or Duck- egg of Cuvier and Valenciennes and of de Sauvigny. It is described as having a perfect eggshaped body, very evenly convexed and rounded on all sides, from the head to the base of the tail; with flat eyes like those ot the Fringetail, which verv seldom incline to the telescopic. The dorsal and anal fins are absent, the pectoral and ventral fins are normal and the FIG. 29 — Chinese Celestial Telescope Goldfish Lateral view. Two-thirds life size 6l GOLDFISH BREEDS narrow double tail droops directly downward from the back. Those of a white color are most highly prized and are considered to be the most perfect and preferable to mottled or red fishes, as they more nearly deserve the designation of Eggfish. FIG. 30 — Chinesej'Eggfish Curassius auratus, var. chinensis oviformis . Two-thirds life size None of these are bred in the Eastern States, the author having seen but one imported specimen; but young fishes of scaled Telescope parent- age often exhibit some of the described characteristics, which by careful breeding and selection would in time produce this breed. At the time of this writing attempts in this direction are being made in Philadelphia. THE CHINESE TUMBLER GOLDFISH Carassius auratus , var. chinensis saltator. Fig. 31 This singularly developed goldfish is one of the most curious of the Chinese varieties as yet known in the United States. The accompanying illustration was made from the description and sketch obtained through the courtesy of Mr. Hugo Mulertt. The curvature of the spine, the development and position of the pectoral, ventral and dorsal fins; the large anal fin and the peculiar double tail make this fish so out of balance that its only method of progression is by a series of backward somersaults, similar to the gyrations of the Tumbler pigeon. It is described as a scaled, telescopic-eyed fish of blue color flushed with orange, and is now extinct in the United States. In 62 (iOLDFISH BRKI.DS 1 90 1, a Philadelphia breeder accidentally obtained several fishes in a hatching of fry of imported Chinese mixed parentage, which had many of FIG. 31 — Chinese Tumbler Goldfish Carassius auratus, var. chinensis saltator Two-thirds life size the described perculiarities of this variety, but none survived to maturity. See de Sauvigny's description of the Kin-teon-yu. OTHER VARIETIES OF THE GOLDFISH The early authorities writing on the goldfish mention a number of other varieties not here described because they are still unknown to the author. The data concerning them is meagre and not sufficiently explicit for their certain identification. There are probably many with which the American fancier will become familiar later, as the appreciation of the finer goldfishes is of rapid growth so that the attention of Oriental breeders will be directed to this market for their, at present, very perishable wares. With increased interest, however combined with improved facilities of transportation, better accommodations upon arrival and rest before ship- ment across the Continent, as well as with a fuller understanding of their requirements for acclimatization, breeding and treatment of ills and ail- ment upon arrival, the mortality will be so materially lessened as to make their importation and propagation a profitable industry. When this has been accomplished, all the wonders in goldfish culture now only known through the insufficient descriptions of travelers not fully conversant with the subject, will be familiar to the American and European breeders. 63 GOLDFISH BREEDS Hybridization. Hybridization is easy with the goldfish, as its evi- dent by the many singular crosses produced by breeders. Fig. 32 is an accurate drawing of a goldfish, known in Philadelphia as Agard's Wonder, the product of crossing a transparently scaled Comet and a similarly scaled Teles- cope, which resulted in the production of this singular hybrid. It has the short hunchbacked body, the de- pressed snout and the paired fins and protruding eyes ot the Telescope, together with the dorsal fin and long verte- bral column of the Comet; to which is attached a very long deeply bifurcated double tail. Another peculiarity is the en- tire absence of the anal fin. This singular fish is so out of balance, due to the long spine and the great mass of tail, that it rests upon the water plants balanced on the tail, and the elongated spine is so mobile that when it is curved under the body, the head of the fish is sometimes wrapped into the folds of the tail. Another abnormality is shown in Figs. 33 and 34. This white fish has the body shaped like an egg,and when viewed from above, has very much the appearance of a white rat. Many other singu- larities could be cited, and when it is remember- ed what faithful copyists both the Chinese and Japanese are, there can be no doubt that the goldfishes depicted on their Ceramics and FIG. 33 — Lawson's The White Rat Lateral view Two-thirds life size 64 FIG. 32 — Agard's Wonder Two-thirds life size GOLDFISH BREEDS bronzes are accurate re-productions of fishes bred by them. Some of these are so astonishing in form and colors that to the layman thev would appear to be willful exaggerations or caricatures, but to the experienced goldfish culturist are easily within the range 01 possibility and may be accepted by him without question. This tendency to varia- tion on the part of the goldfish is one of the principal points of inter- est in its culture, as any alevin may have a distinct character of its own and be either a wonder in its way or a "sport" not worth the trouble of raising. It should be stated that young fishes of marked abnormality do not usually survive which is very often also the case with those considered the most perfect by the fancier. FIG. 34— The White Rat Dorsal view Two-thirds life size Description of the Goldfishes Depicted by De Sauvigny This illustrated memoir of Chinese goldfishes is in the possession of the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia, and is entitled Histoire Naturelle Des Dorades de la Chine, Gravees par M. F. N. Martinet, Ingenieur et Graveur du Cabinet du Roi, Accompagnee d' Observations et d' Anecdotes relatives aus Usages, aus Mcers et au Gouvernement de cet Empire, par M. De Sauvigny, Chevalier de l'Ordre Royal et Militaire de Saint Louis, Censeur Royal, &c. a Paris, De rimprimerie de Louis Jorry, reu de la Huchette, pres du Petit -Chatelet. MDCCLXXX Avec Approbation et Privelege du Roi. It consists of forty-eight finely colored plates, and of twenty-four pages of text principally descriptive of the Chinese realm, government, laws and literature. The brief mention of the goldfishes occurs in the Preface and in the short article proper, a literal translation of which follows. "Of the different species of goldfishes of China the one known in Europe is the least thought of there. The stories of our travelers and the history of Pere du Halde have onlv given a very imperfect idea and in several respects even a false one." 65 GOLDFISH BREEDS " These memoirs were made in Pekin by a very able Chinaman, and have been sent to the Minister in France, who has allowed us to make use of them. "All the fishes, redrawn and colored in France, have come to us with these memoirs and we are safe in saying that the burin and colorings of M. Martinet have made the copies better than the original drawings. Only one species of goldfish is known in Europe; the Chinese recog- nize seven to which they have given the common name of Kin-Yu, and thev distinguish each by a particular name. We have taken the precaution of adding to the Chinese names the French equivalents because it must be remembered that all the names in the Chinese language, as in the greater number of the Oriental languages, have a descriptive significance and ordi- narily take to themselves the principal qualities of the thing described." " There are then seven species of goldfishes or Kin-Yu. i. The KIN-YU, properly so called; this is the most common of all, first known in China, towards the year 950, and in the 1 8th Century brought to Port de 1' Orient, to 1' Hotel de la Compagnie des Indes. 2. The YA-TAN-YU, or Duck Eggs. 3. The LONG-TSING-YU or Dragon Eyes. 4. The CHOI-YU or Sleepers. 5. The KIN-TEON-YU or Tumblers. 6. The NIN-EUBK-YU or Nymphs. 7. The QUEN-YU or Lettered Fishes." "The habits of life, the development, the different changes, the manner of propagation and the increase of these fishes are no less marvelous than their external form and their brilliant colors." " It is a noteworthy fact that they have been given the name of a sea fish, with which they appear to have nothing in common. However, they may have originally come from the sea; indeed they were first known in the province of Tche-Kiang which extends as far as the sea on the Oriental coast. They may have ascended the rivers by which this province is watered, following the habit of the salmon, the shad, the sturgeon, the sole and many other species of fishes." "We know how actively Chinese industry is awakened by cupidity, but is it able to influence the Works of Nature? Is it able to change, so to speak, their habitation? However, if man has been able to transplant plants and quadrupeds from the northern meridian and from the old to the new hemisphere, what law prevents him naturalizing in the rivers some of the inhabitants of the sea? Some of the provinces abound in salt waters of which fish ponds can be made; would it then be impossible to people them with sea fishes? These questions, more interesting because 66 GOLDFISH BRKKDS of the benefit which they present than because of the curiosity which they excite, open a vast field ot research for naturalists, which have not yet sufficiently attracted their attention." This meagre and unsatisfictory description is all the mention which the memoir makes of the goldfishes, but the plates are so interesting and curious that brief descriptions of the eighty-eight fishes of the mentioned seven breeds shown are only omitted on account of lack of space. The book is open to the inspection of the public in the library of the Academy, Cor. 19th and Race Streets, Philadelphia. None of the plates show transparently scaled fishes or an absence of the dorsal fin which leads to the inference that these characteristics were of later development than the publication of this book. 67 CHAPTER IV Some Freshwater Aquarium Fishes SOME FRESHWATER AQUARIUM FISHES Many of the readily obtainable native freshwater fishes, and some of the foreign forms, make interesting aquarium inhabitants, living in perfect amity with and harmless to goldfishes. There are others, however, which are best kept by themselves ; but all serve as interesting studies to the lover of fluvial life in the household. These will be described, together with the methods for their care and maintenance, beginning with the nest-builders and following with the ordinary pond and river fishes. Mention of a good part of the freshwater Ichthyic fauna is omitted, these being forms that cannot be kept alive in smaller aquaria. THE INDIAN PARADISE FISH This beautiful and interesting aquarium fish, Macropodus venestrus y is most singular and curious in all its habits. In the Orient, it is bred for the same purpose as the game chicken and contests are arranged upon which considerable sums are often staked. This fish is of such a belliger- ent disposition that the males will attack each other, and also their mates out of the breeding season, the strong lips and sharp teeth being formid- able weapons with which fatal wounds are inflicted. The appearance of the fish is novel, the curious form, brilliant markings, evasive colors and marvelous fins and tail, differing from any other domesticated fish. In the breeding season the males are of lustrous, dark olive-green color, overlaid with fleeting, prismatic color flashes which seem to be under control of the fish. The fins and tail are outlined with most brilliant red, yellow and brown. The females are lighter in color and of a more grey- ish or light-brown hue, which becomes a greyish-white during the breeding period, and all the fins are shorter and more rounded than those of the males. The illustration, Fig. 35, is the male of the domesticated variety, Macropodus -viridi-auratus, in nuptual garb. The Paradise Fish is easily reared and prolific, and will thrive in any FIG. 3 5 — Indian Paradise Fish Macropodus viridi-auratus Two-thirds life size 7i SOME FRESHWATER AQUARIUM FISHES receptacle and water, much plant life and frequent changes of water being unnecessary. The fish is an air-breather and is not dependent upon the oxygen liberated by aquatic plants. It will live in temperatures to ioo° F., but, on account of its tropical origin, succumbs to those under 3 8° or 40 F. It is of such lively habit that the aquarium should be kept covered to prevent its leaping out of the water. The sexes should also be separated except in the breeding season, as the full-grown pugnaceous male frequently kills its mate and will exterminate any other fish in the same vessel. The nest-building habit of this fish is most curious. The spawnings occur a number of times during the season, the floating nests being formed of air bubbles coated with gelatinous matter expelled from the mouth of the male. The eggs are deposited by the female, fecundated by the male, carefully placed in the fairy nest and permitted to hatch, he guarding and caring for them until the fry make their appearance. Then the nest is destroyed and the young fishes are carefully tended until they are old enough to care for themselves; the male assuming the whole duty and keeping the female away from the young. When of sufficient age, the fry should be fed with the same food as young goldfishes and later will thrive on the prepared fish foods together with a frequent diet of earthworms or small particles of raw meat and liver, though the fish prefers and thrives best on living food. Daphnia, small worms, young snails, gnats, small houseflies, moths and other insects are generally fed. THE STICKLEBACK This most interesting little fish inhabits streams which reach the ocean, some forms frequenting brackish and salt water. It is one of the most belligerent of freshwater fishes and may be bred in the aquarium, but should FIG. 36 — Four-spined Stickleback, Apeites quadratui be isolated from other kinds. Its nest-building is very interesting and varies considerably in the natural state. Some build upon the bottom of 72 SOME FRESHWATER AQUARIUM FISHES the streams hidden among the weeds and water plants, others under sub- merged boughs to which the nest is attached, or upon stones and project- ing ledges. The building is done solely by the male who assumes bright colorings at this period. All kinds of material are collected and are matted together to form the bottom, and held in place bv sand and small pebbles. Leaves, stems, twigs and other available materials are glued together with a mucilagenous substance which is exuded from the body of the fish. Next the sides and roof are formed, leaving only a circular opening through which the female deposits the spawn. The male guards the young fishes, not even permitting the female to approach the nest after spawning. He assaults every living thing that comes into the neighborhood with his sharp dorsal and ventral fins and teeth. About the tenth day after the spawn has hatched, he begins to demolish the nest but keeps vigil over the young for a month or more until they are able to take care of themselves, when both he and the young disappear together. There is nothing more interesting in an aquarium than a pair of sticklebacks. They should be supplied with an abundance of building material in the form of aquatic plants, especially myriophyllum, nitella and vallisneria, the long leaves of the latter being especially desirable for the foundation of the nests. Three species are generally distributed, the Two-spined Stickleback, Gasterosteus bispinosus; the Four-spined Stickleback, Apeltes quadratus; Fig. 36, and the Ten-spined Stickleback, Pygosteus pungitius. The Four- spined form is abundant in the Delaware river. Daphnia, earthworms, small particles of fresh meat, insects and any of the boiled cereals, sparingly fed, is the best food for the Stickleback in the aquarium. THE SUNFISH The ordinary sunfish, Eupomotis gibbosus, is one of- the most widely distributed of the freshwater fishes. There are many well-known species which differ principally in their really beautiful markings and the shape of the ear or gill-flap. Nearly all the sunfishes are nest-builders; their spawn- ing beds may be recognized by the clean appearance of the gravelly bot- toms of streams and ponds, from which all vegetal matter, mud and peb- bles have been either carefully removed by agitation with the fins and tail, or carried away in the mouths of the fishes. Often the stems of the sur- rounding aquatic plants are trained over the beds to form a perfect bower. After depositing the spawn it is carefully watched by the parent fishes, 73 SOME FRESHWATER AQUARIUM FISHES which become bold and belligerent during this season and will attack all approaching enemies. t ' The sunfishes acquire the unpleasant habit of nibbling the fins and tails of the goldfishes, if not plentifully fed, for which reason it is best to FIG. 37 — Common Sunfish, Eupomotis gibbosus keep them separate or to introduce very small ones only into an aquarium in which goldfishes are kept. The most generally distributed species of sunfishes (Centrarchidre) are the following: The Common Sunfish, Eupomotis gibbosus; Fig. 37, the Blue-spotted Sunfish, Enneacanthus gloriosus; the long-eared Sunfish, Lepomis FIG. 38 — Black-banded Sunfish, Mesogonistius cha-todon auritus; the Black-banded Sunfish, or Chaetodon, Mesogonistius chvtodon, Fig. 38, and other forms popularly known as the Green and Blue Sunfish, 74 SOME FRESHWATER AQUARIUM FISHES Red-bellied Bream and Crappie. All will survive in the aquarium, and those enumerated occur in the Delaware River. The Chrctodon is an especial favorite with aquariists on account of its beautiful markings and lively habits. The sunfish should be occasionally fed with live food, flies, worms, etc. THE AMERICAN DACE The Black-nosed Dace, Rhinichthys cataract a ; Fig. 39, is a native of all swift-running streams, preferably those of cold water. There are two varieties most generally distributed which usually inhabit the same streams and rivulets. The Black-nosed Dace, the most abundant form in the valley of the Delaware, is easily distinguished by the black line extending from the FIG. 39 — Black-nosed Dace, R/iinicht/iys cataracts snout along the sides to the tail. It is most remarkably rapid in its movements and in the aquarium is a veritable finny jester. Its movements are so rapid and erratic that it appears like a silvery streak as it darts about in bewilder- ing confusion. In every way it is entirely harmless and may be kept with goldfishes, especially with the fine breeds of sluggish habits, to whom it is of direct benefit in agitating the water. The spawning season begins early in June, when both the male and the female take to nest-making in some rapid running brook or trout stream, the clearing sometimes being over two feet in diameter. All waste-materials are carefully removed and when the spawn has been deposited it is cover- ed with clean pebbles which the fishes bring down stream in their mouths, the alternate deposits of spawn and pebbles often forming mounds eight inches high. This is done not only to protect the young from enemies, but also to prevent the eggs from washing away in the rapid flowing streams. The dace will thrive on the usual goldfish foods. Live food should be occasionally fed. THE CHUB That species of the Chub popularly known as the Fall-fish, Silver- chub, Wind-fish and Corporal, Semotdus corpora/is, is a most interesting aquarium fish but thrives best in larger tanks, as it often grows to be 15 inches in length. It has the habit of building nests for the spawn and 75 SOME FRESHWATER AQUARIUM FISHES young, which, in a locality in which the fishes are abundant, measure 4 to 10 feet in diameter. Pebbles and stones, often several pounds in weight, are heaped up to form conical mounds, and, as the fishes are gregarious during the breeding season, quite a number use the same spawning place, which is added to year by year. The purpose of these elaborate structures is to protect the young from their predatory enemies, the Rock and Black bass, perch, catfish, eel and water-snake. In the aquarium they are timid and entirely harmless and will thrive satisfactorily when not overstocked. FIG. 40 — Creek Chub, Semotilus atromaculatus The Horned-dace or Creek-chub, Semotilus atromaculatus, Fig. 40, is abundant chiefly in small brooks. It is more lively in the aquarium than the Corporal. The chub prefers a vegetable diet, and should be fed on boiled cereals, and occasionally a little of the boiled yolk of an egg. THE GOLDEN ORFE OR IDE This fish, Fig. 41, is one of the Carp family, the Cyprinidte, developed in Germany from the albino Orfe, Idus idus, a handsome, hardy fish but not fully domesticated, its probable migratory habit and consequent rest- lessness causing it to leap from the water, on which account the tank should be screened or not filled to the top. This applies more to the American bred fish than to the import- ed German Orfe, Idus melanotis; the latter having lost its wild habits by many generations under domestication. Its propagation hasbeen very successful in the fish ponds at Washington, where an abundant sup- ply is kept, and though a food fish of fair quality it has not been bred for 76 FIG. 41 — Golden Ide, Idus idus SOME FRESHWATER AQUARIUM FISHES this use in the United States. Tenacious of lite and easily reared in shallow ponds of about 3 feet depth, of either spring or running water and containing abundant plant life, its propagation should be encouraged be- cause it is a very ornamental fish. It is of handsome form with rich sal- mon-yellow color on the back and silvery white sides, and a very conspic- uous inhabitant for the pond or basin as it has retained its habit of swim- ming in schools and appears to be constantly in motion. Spawning takes place in April or May, the eggs, being about 1-10 inch in diameter, adhere to the aquatic plants, on which they hatch in 5 or 6 days. Success in hatching depends upon an even temperature of about 56 F.; and should be conducted in shaded ponds. With a healthy plant growth feeding need not be resorted to until the fry is a month old, when they should be given a small quantity of cooked corn-meal mixed with flour and boiled oatmeal, with an occasional ration of finely divided fish flesh, bivalve, crayfish or other animal food. The young attain a length of 3 inches in six months, growing in natural waters to 12 to 15 inches in a year and to a weight of 1 to 1 ^ pounds. In the aquarium the growth is slow, not over an inch a year. The Golden Orfe is a beautiful aquarium inhabitant and is harmless to goldfishes. For pond culture, on country estates, it is preferable to the common goldfish, as its habits are more interesting. THE TENCH This handsome freshwater food fish, Tinea tinea, is one ot the most generally bred of the European pond fishes, especially in England, whither it was introduced from the Continent, as it is not indigenous to the natural waters of Great Britain. It has also been successfully cultivated in the United States, the breeding fishes and fry having been distributed by the U. S. Commission of Fish and Fisheries. It belongs to the carp family, (Cyprinidae) but differs from the other mem- bers of this numerous family both in body conformation and its very small scales. All the fins have a rounded outline, the dorsal is without a spine and the male possesses a thick outer ray on the ventrals which serves a sexual purpose. The tench thrives best in enclosed preserved waters having a clay or mud bottom with abundant vegetation, is extremely prolific and grows to a weight ot 3 and 4 pounds. It is a food fish, the meat being of a sweet and pleasant flavor and it will thrive in any fresh Water pond, FIG - 4 2 ~ Young Golden Tench. Ttnca auratus. 11 SOME FRESHWATER AQUARIUM FISHES lake or pool which never seem to be too thick, muddy or fetid for it to inhabit. Like the carp it buries itself in the mud during the winter months and there remains in a semi-torpid state until the advent of warm weather. The young are most beautiful aquarium inmates though more timid than goldfishes. Their colors are so delicate and fleeting as to be almost prismatic, when the fishes are viewed in a strong light. In form they are long, slender and rather flat-sided; the mouth is narrow, the eyes large and the small nostrils are erect. The fins are clear transparent white in fine contrast with the handsome colors of the body. Two forms are generally bred, the Green and the Golden tench. The Common or Green Tench, Tinea c^eru/eus, is a finely scaled handsome fish, especially the young when about i to 3 inches in length. The colors are rich olive-green on the back and abdomen with a fine metallic golden-green lustre which fairly scintillates with prismatic colors when viewed in the aquarium with the light at the back of the observer. The Golden Tench, Tinea auratus, is an albino variety of the Com- mon Tench originally bred in Silesia, and is of bright orange color, spotted with brown dots on the sides, fins and tail. The small fishes, Fig. 42, are so nearly transparent when viewed towards the light that all the interior organs and the very functions of life may be seen through the transparent substance of the skin. When viewed with the light at the back of the ob- server, the colors are most charming and resemble an opal more than any other object. With the exception of the Goldfish and the Paradise fish, the Tench is probably the handsomest aquarium fish, very hardy, easily kept, and perfectly harmless, and should find a place in every aquarium. It may be fed with the usual goldfish foods. Its culture should be en- couraged, as it is a very fine pond fish of lively habit. THE CARP The Carp, Cyprinus carpio, is one of the most widely distributed of the pond fishes. A number of forms have been produced by European breeders of which the following are the more interesting. FIG 43 — Young Scaled Carp, Cyprinus carpio communis 78 SOME FRESHWATER AQUARIUM FISHES The Scaled Carp, Cyprinus carpio communis, Fig. 43, was originally introduced into Europe from Central Asia, and has been extensively culti- vated in natural and artificial ponds and slow-flowing streams. It is dis- tinguished from its kindred breeds by its regular concentrically arranged scales. The color is variable but is usually brownish with a bluish tinge along the back and a golden or coppery reflection along the scales. The Mirror Carp, Cyprinus carpio specularis, Fig. 44, has very large irregularly disposed scales. Some forms have very few scales, sometimes restricted to one row along the lateral line, or in others to a line along the back with a tew large scales scattered at random over the sides. Some have a dorsal, a ventral and a lateral line of scales on an otherwise scaleless body, these differences being produced by the careful selection and propagation of breeders. FIG. 44 — Young Mirror Carp, Cyprinus carpio specu/aris The color of the back is a decided bluish tone tinged with green and grey, which extends over the sides. The abdomen and the fins are white. 1 he Leather Carp, Cyprinus carpio coriaceus, sive-nudus, Fig. 44A has either a few scales on the back or none at all, and possesses a thick soft FIG. 44A — Young Leather Carp, Cyprinus carpio coriaceus leathery skin, which feels velvety to the touch. Those of golden-brown, color and devoid of scales are most highly prized by European breeders. 79 SOME FRESHWATER AQUARIUM FISHES The Golden Carp, Cxprinus carpio aureus, is an albino form of the Scaled Carp, atone time extensively bred in Germany for ornamental pur- poses but has been largely superseded by the Common goldfish. The Crusian Carp, Carassius carassius, Fig. 45 is a variable form closely related to Cyprinus carpio and differs somewhat in form and in the absence of barbels. It is a shorter fish of more hunch-backed appearance. Its habits are also similar to the common carp, and it will live in localities wherein the impurities are sufficient to destroy most other of the fresh- water fishes. It is con- sidered to have been the form from which the goldfish, Carassius aura- tus, was derived, this fish being of Chinese and Corean origin and ex- traction. Other forms of the Crusian Carp are FIG. 45 — Young Crusian Carp, Carassius carassius /"• mnleS C Plbelio C oblongus and C. humi/is, all variations produced by domestication, selection and breeding. Small specimens of all the Carp breeds make interesting aquarium fishes. In 1877, an d f° r some years thereafter, attempts were made to generally introduce the Scaled and Leather Carp in the United States, as their easy propagation recommended them for regions remote from a supply of better-flavored fishes, but the results were not satisfac- tory and in the past years the attempt has been abandoned. The introduction of carp into many streams is now forbidden by acts of state legislation. All carp will excavate the banks of ponds in search for food which consists of the tender shoots and roots of aquatic plants and the tiny ento- mostraca and insects of fresh water, for which it burrows into the mud and the banks of streams and ponds. In the aquarium it will thrive on goldfish foods. The carp is destructive to the spawn of other fishes. THE TESSELLATED DARTER The Tessellated Darter, Boleosoma nigrum ohmstedi, Fig. 46 is a most singular and beautifully marked small fish of belligerent habits. The name is derived from its habit of lying motionless on the bottom of clear streams and suddenly springing upon its prey with marvelous rapidity. In the aquarium it is best kept with such freshwater fishes as are able to 80 SOME FRESHWATER AQUARIUM FISHES take care of themselves, like the sunfish, catfish, tiny eels, the young of the spiny-rayed fishes, etc.; and should be fed on small live food and boiled cereals. FIG. 46 — Tessellated Darter, Boleosoma nigrum olimsttdi THE SUCKER The Common Sucker, Catostomus commersonnii^ Fig. 47, will also thrive in the aquarium. Its habits are similar to the Carp, and the young FIG. 47 — Common Sucker, Catostomus commersonnii may be kept with goldfishes. Any of the goldfish foods may be fed, boiled oatmeal, flaked rice, or fine corn meal mush being the usual food, varied occasionally with small particles of earthworms, mussels and small snails. THE KILLIFISH Two species of the Killifish are vivacious little aquarium inmates. These are the Common or Green Killifish, Fundulus heterochtus, and the Barred Killifish, Fundulus diaphanus, Fig. 48, which inhabits brackish water. Both thrive in the aquarium. The Barred form is marked with steel-blue and silvery-white bars, and has a peculiar metallic lustre. 1 1 is entirely harmless and v T ery lively in its habits. Its food should be a mixed animal and vegetable diet, sparingly fed. SOME FRESHWATER AQUARIUM FISHES FIG. 48 — Barred Killirish, Fundulus diaphanus THE BRILLIANT CHUBSUCKER OR MULLET This fish is known as the Chubsucker, Erimyzon sucetta, Fig. 49, and may be recognized by its clear green back, lemon-yellow sides, and white FIG. 49 — Chub-sucker or Mullet, Erimyzon sucetta abdomen. It is quite generally distributed in flowing water in most ot the river systems of the Eastern, Middle and Southern states. It can be kept with other freshwater fishes and thrives satisfactorily in the aquarium. Its food is the same as that of the Sucker. THE MINNOWS The Minnows or cyprinoids are among the smallest of freshwater fishes. There are many well-known species some of which thrive in the aquarium, but others, whose natural habitat is swift-running water, are difficult to keep alive except in tanks in which the water is constantly changing. Some of the hardy forms are easily tamed and soon learn to come to the surface of the water to be fed. The most generally distri- buted species are the Black-striped minnow, Notropis procne; the Silver- fin, Notropis analostanus, Fig. 50, and the Red-fin, Notropis cornutus. 82 SOME FRESHWATER AQUARIUM FISHES These are all abundant in the small tributary streams of the Delaware, and when voung are difficult to identity as they all look much alike. The adults, however, are different and develop brilliant colors during the FIG. 50 — Silver Fin, Xotropis anaiostanus spring or breeding season. The young of almost all species of freshwater fishes are often called minnows. The minnows thrive best on boiled cereals and small particles of earthworms, dessicated meat, shellfish, etc. THE SHINER OR ROACH This beautiful fish, Abramis cryso/eucas, Fig. 51, may be kept in the aquarium and is perhaps the most hardy of all of our Minnows or Cypri- noid fishes. Instances of a long survival of this fish in the aquarium are v »eW»^^V»^ W.»(Ci ' FIG. 51 — Shiner or Roach, Abramis cryso/eucas frequently mentioned, and, as it is of interesting habit, it will reward the fancier to introduce it, but not together with the finely bred goldfishes, as it tears their tails and fins. Its food is like that of the minnows. 83 SOME FRESHWATER AQUARIUM FISHES THE CATFISH This fish is so well-known that little need be said in its description. Several species are most generally distributed, the White Catfish, Ameiurus FIG. 52 — Stone-catfish or Little Mad Tom, Schi/beodes insignis catus, the Horned Pout or Common Bullhead Ameiurus nebulosus, and the Little Mad Tom, Schilbeodes insignis, Fig. 52. They are very annoying to goldfishes and should not be put into aquaria with them. Small parti- cles of animal food, dessicated meat, mussels, etc.,togetherwith boiled cereals are the best food. THE EEL Eels abound in all the waters of the temperate and torrid zones, but it has been established that they always visit brackish and salt water to spawn. They are very tenacious of life, a modification of their gills en- abling them to go considerable distances overland in their Spring migra- tions or in search of food. The Common American Eel, Anguilla y ■-•;"'V : v^r^ Sifflpr pm % FIG. 53 — Common Eel, Anguilla chrysspd chrysypa. Fig. $3, is of slow growth, rarely exceeding 12 inches during the first year, but attaining a length of over 4 feet and a weight exceeding 5 pounds. Its food consists of all insect and animal life as well as putres- cent vegetal and animal substances. They are good scavengers but de- structive to the spawn of all fishes. In the aquarium they will nibble at the fins of other fishes and should not be kept with goldfishes unless they are of very small size. Eels will eat almost anything and everything fed to them. 84 SOME FRESHWATER AQUARIUM FISHES THE SPINY-RAYED FISHES The Bass, Perch, Pike, Pike-perch, and other predaceous spiny-raved fishes need not receive mention here, as their belligerent habits preclude their being kept in aquaria with other fishes. They thrive onlv in large tanks having a constant flow of fresh water. Very small specimens are sometimes kept in aquaria, but it is difficult to keep them alive. COLLECTING IN STREAMS AND PONDS One of the chief pleasures incidental to the household aquarium for other than goldfishes, is the collecting of the plant and animal inhabitants of running streams and standing water for home study, observation and classification, and the pleasant outings with congenial companions which this occupation affords. Very few and simple appliances are required; these being a close-meshed pond net with a long sectional handle, upon which a small garden hoe and a wire scoop may be fastened, a collapsing dredg- ing net, a fishing line and minnow hooks, a can of two gallons capacity, a number of small tin cans with perforated lids and small bottles for catch- ing and holding the water inhabitants; and, for the collecting of plants otherwise out of reach, a wire dredging hook or grapple fastened to a strong cord. Larger cans are required to transport fishes, covered with gauze, not with a lid, and if ice is necessary it should be put into the gauze cover, not into the water. In collecting, a certain indication of abundant animal life is the presence of a considerable plant growth, and a careful examination of the floating and submerged leaves, the overhanging foliage, the bottom and the stones is advisable before rendering the water muddy with nets and scoop, which should be turned out on a clear space rather than in the grass, as the contents can then be better searched and the catch seen. The route should also be up-stream that the water may be clear. In addition to identifying the plants and preserving such as may be desired, a thorough examination of them, as well as of the mud and gravel, should be made as these are the home of many insects, larvas, and molluscs. The dredge will also yield many of the latter not otherwise readily ob- tained. The late summer and fall months are the best for making collections for the household aquarium, as those collected in the spring may not sur- vive the summer heat. SOME FRESHWATER AQUARIUM FISHES The lower forms of life are present in all bodies of water but in rapid streams minnows, shiners, sunfishes, dace, chub, suckers, newts, salaman- ders and crayfishes will be found; and in springwater streams trout, troutlets, sticklebacks, dace, pickerel and bass; also fontinalis, chara, and sometimes anacharis of the long-leaved variety. In ditches many insects and their larvae abound; also catfishes, sunfishes, killifishes, carp, eels, tadpoles, mussels and some varieties of the snails; while the ponds afford sunfishes, catfishes, chub, carp, eels, frogs and tadpoles; and in these latter two most of the desired aquatic plants will be found, and a great variety of bivalve and univalve molluscs, together with many of the insects and their larvae. In ponds, ditches and pools the tiny entomastraca, which form the natural food for young fishes, may be found. Photographing Fishes. The photographing of the ichthyfauna in the natural element and surroundings is a recent achievement of the instantaneous processes but the difficulties are so many that good results are extremely rare. Probably the best work in this line was done by R. W. Shufeld, of the Medical Corps, U. S. Army. The usual conditions are unfavorable to proper light, the incessant movements of the fishes makes focusing difficult, the refraction of the glass front of the aquarium is troublesome and the reflection produces a mirror as likely to show the camera and operator as the contents of the aquarium. By the use of a glass plate behind the fish, to restrict its movement, one element of diffi- culty may be partially obviated; but a specially constructed very narrow miniature aquarium, fitted to a tripod and backed by a screen will lead to more satisfactory results, as it may be set in the open air and in favorable light. The apparent plant life, to form a natural background, may con- sist of a sepia drawing secured to the back of the aquarium; the front being constructed of the thinnest portrait glass; but even this interposes a slight screen to the contents and sometimes interferes with a perfectly clear picture. The constant, almost imperceptible movement of the fins and the rarity with which they are all fully expanded compelled the abandonment of this method of illustrating this volume and forced the author to adopt the considerable labor of making accurate pen drawings. The restlessness of the subject prevented the taking of snapshots with every detail of form and fin at their best so as to serve as types of the most perfect fishes of the recognized breeds. 86 CHAPTER V. The Propagation of the Goldfish THE PROPAGATION OF THE GOLDFISH FIG. 54— Goldfish spawn attached to the leaf of an aquatic plant. Enlarged about two and a half diameters. As previously stated, the goldfish is oviparous and the spawn is fecundated after extrusion. Figure 54. The almost transparent white or yellowish eggs are about one-sixteenth inch in diameter and when first ex- truded have a slightly flattened, lentd shaped appearance but upon fecunda- tion assume a globular form. Fer- tilized eggs retain their translucent ap- pearance, but the unfertilized eggs become opaque or milky. The hatching of the ova takes place in from three to seven days, dependent upon the season of the year and the temperature of the water ; and con- sists of the germination of the yolk, the development of the embryo, and the final evolution of the alevin or tiny fry still attached to the yolksac, upon which it nourishes for some days after hatching. Figure $$ will explain the metamorphosis of the egg and the development of the fry, the greatly enlarged illustration being that of a June hatching of spawn of a mottled male and a red and white female Chinese Telescope goldfish ; and is (1) the newly exuded unfecun- dated ova, full and lateral views; (2) the ova four and ten hours after fecundation, showing germination and formation of the membrane; (3) the development of the embr/o and plasmic processes at the edge of the mem- brane, twenty-four and thirty-six hours after fecundation; (4) development of the alevin and yolksac, fifty and fifty-six hours after fecundation; (5) free-swimming alevin attached to the yolksac, four days old; (6) alevin five days old; (7) the same seven days old; (8) the fully developed young fry ten days old. Artificial Impregnation. The author knows of no successful at- tempts at the artificial impregnation of the spawn of goldfishes, though this is successfully done with the eggs of the larger food fishes, and has increased the number of fertile eggs from 50% to 80% or yo% over the natural method of fecundation. Attempts in this direction would be most interesting, and there is no doubt of its being practiced by the Oriental breeders. 89 THE PROPAGATION OF THE GOLDFISH Mating. The mating season of the goldfish is during the warm spring and summer months, when the water is at 6o° or over, and spawn- ings occur at frequent intervals, as with this species of Cyprinidas all the FIG. 55. Embriology of the Goldfish. Newly exuded egg, not fecundated, wrin- kled and unexpanded surface covered with vesicles. Full and lateral views. Egg, four and ten hours after fecundation, showing germination and formation of membrane. Development of embrio and plasmic pro- cesses at edge of membrane, 24 and 34 hours after spawning. 4. Development of alevin and yolk-sac, 50 and 58 hours after spawning. 5 . Free-swimming alevin attached to the yolk- sac, showing skeleton, partly developed digestive organs and surface colors. Four days old. 6. Alevin five days old; dorsal and caudal fins partly developed. 7. Alevin seven days old; pectoral and ana fins developed. 8. The fully developed Telescope fry, ten days old. >&& ^^^feg Greatly enlarged. Actual size, No. 8, eggs do not mature at the same time. During this period the distinguish- ing characteristics of the male are developed and consist of wartlike pro- tuberances or papillose tubercles on the opercular and main rays of the pec- toral fins, Fig. 10 (page 46), which have distinct sexual purpose. Another go THE PROPAGATION OF THE GOLDFISH means of discriminating the sexes is the appearance of the fishes near the anal region. The female shows a slight protuberance above the anus, the ^^ protrusion of the oviduct; while the male has a ^^V i depression in this region as though a tiny piece of .^==|k the flesh had been pinched out with the nails of the — '""* finger and thumb, Fig. 56. These latter differences FIG. <;6 Difference at anal • 1 1 n region of female and maleGold- are notlCable at all times. tithes, tor diTerm ning the sex. The conduct of the male in pursuit of the female shows unmistakable evidence of courtship; swimming beside and around her, rubbing her sides and pressing on the ovaries with the head and tubercles, aiding her in depositing the spawn, often fairly forcing her on the spawning bed. At this season the enlarged ovaries of the female give to her a de- cidelv fuller and more distended appearance and also aid in the discrimina- tion of the sexes, though the otherwise general conformation of body and fin may be alike. It is generally recognized, however, that the males of finelv bred goldfishes incline to longer bodies than the females. The female deposits the spawn, Fig. 54, on the leaves and roots of aquatic plants, its mucilaginous covering causing an adhesion thereto, where it is covered and fecundated with spermatic corpuscles by the male. To the breeder the preferable plants for spawning are Myriophyllum, introduced in loose bunches, and the Water Hyacinth whose finely spiked floating roots are well adapted to this purpose. Previous examination is advisable that they harbor no snails, insects, larvae, or other enemies that may de- vour the spawn or injure the fry, if introduced with them into the hatch- ing dishes. Preferably the plants should be placed in water for some time so that the larvae will hatch and then thoroughly cleaned in a weak solution of Phenol-sodique before use for spawning. When the fry has reached the stage of development that the yolksac entirely disappears, feeding is necessary and this consists of the tiny water plants known as Algae, and of minute aquatic animalcule which abound in quiet pools and still water, entomostraca of the genera Daphnia, Poly- phema 7 , Ceriodaphnia, Sida, Cyclops and Cyprus; also mosquito larvae and those of harmless insects, of which more will be stated hereafter. Great care must be taken in the selection of this food that injurious insect spawn and larvae, or the protozoa and fungi which produce diseases, and parasites are not introduced with it into the rearing tanks. This will also be treated of elsewhere. If the breeding is undertaken in a small way, a fine net of cheese cloth and ajar containing a little pond soil and a water plant are required 9' THE PROPAGATION OF THE GOLDFISH to collect the animalculae which constitute the entire requirements of the fry; but breeders usually employ a tank in which to store and propagate them under careful supervision. When the fry have reached an age of about three weeks a few parti- cles of clean, crushed earthworms, finely scraped liver or powdered pre- pared fish food may be occasionally fed, their diet being as described until they have reached an age of two or three months and are able to subsist on the food of mature fishes. Rice flour, oatmeal broth and finely powdered barley malt starch have also been fed to very young fishes with success; but the best results and most vigorous growth are obtained by feeding them their natural pond food two or three times daily; when this can be obtained it should be fed exclusively. The common goldfish is easy to propagate but considerable experience, skill and knowledge are required to successfully rear fine specimens of the Japanese and Chinese breeds; of which the Comets, Fringetails, Fantails and Nymphs are more likely to reward the efforts of the amateur culturist than the very abnormally developed Telescopes and Celestials. There are but few breeders who have successfully done this on a commercial scale, though the requirements as to equipment are few and simple. A light, sheltered room, a greenhouse, conservatory, or in the open air during mild weather; a number of rearing tanks or other vessels of various sizes and depths of water; hatching dishes, jars or tanks; the proper aquatic plants and water supply; some few simple tools, patience, cleanliness, good eye- sight, some little experience and a careful attention to minor details are required. A prime factor in the successful propagation of the goldfish breeds is a judicious selection of the breeding stock, so that the desired characteris- tics of the parents may be transmitted to their young. The breeder should carefully select and mate those which most markedly exhibit the recognized perfections of strain, type, color and conformation, or such which are de- rived from known fine stock, as the constant tendency of the finely bred Japanese and Chinese fishes is toward reversion to the original stock or ancestral type; nor is this probably as much due to inbreeding as to the fact that the fishes, under the changed condition of existence, differences in treatment, climate, food etc., from generation to generation undergo a gradual variation from the direct parent stock, acquire a different form or become hybridized; and perfect specimens of the fine Oriental fishes are exceptionally rare. There is a general belief that all the methods em- ployed by the Japanese and Chinese culturists, in developing and maintain- ing the pure strains and in producing the wide diversity of form, color and appearance of the different breeds are not known or fully understood by 92 THE PROPAGATION OF THE GOLDFISH the American breeder, goldfish culture being a comparatively recent in- dustry in the United States, but has been a science in China and Japan for centuries and an occupation of very considerable magnitude, to which must be added the endless patience and perseverance which is characteristic of the Oriental. It is also known that they only retain those young fishes which are the most perfect of their respective kinds, as with all animals even the most careful breeding will produce many variations from the parent stock, which in the goldfish leads to the hatching of imperfect fishes and "sports." The breeding of the fine varieties is best conducted in tanks where the fishes may be kept under constant inspection and supervision, but the common goldfish multiplies rapidly in the pond; requiring only moderate attention, some little protection from natural enemies and sufficient food. None of the early writers mention or illustrate the so-called scaleless goldfishes. These really are thin or transparently scaled fishes. The young of these breeds show a change from the dull to the bright colors almost as soon as the umbilical sac is consumed and when the fish is still very small. Under the microscope both the embrio and alevin show a mottled appearance different from the dull olivate color of the heavily scaled goldfishes. These thin-scaled fishes are the most sensitive to cold water and low temperatures, as they are derived from fishes bred in the warmer parts of China. In breeding for color both parents should have the desired markings or have been derived from highly colored stock. To produce scaleless (transparently scaled) Japanese Fringetails a female Fringetail should be crossed with a transparently scaled male Chinese Telescope; as when the female is transparently scaled and the male scaled, a smaller percentage ot the young will be transparently scaled. A scaleless (crossed) female Fringe- tail and a male scaleless Telescope will produce the telescopic eye and the Fringetail body and large fin development; and when both parents are scaleless (crossed) Fringetails, they are most likely to produce scaleless Fringetails with smaller and flat eye development than the Chinese Teles- cope, but larger than that of the common goldfish. These are the hand- somest and most highly colored fishes, superior to the Scaled Japanese Fringetail stock. Prof. John A. Rvder stated that experiments in shaking apart the cells produced by the first cleavage in the egg led to the development or two separate embnos from the same egg, as well as the production ot monstrosities in both invertebrate and vertebrate animals. He mentioned experiments in producing double monsters by violently shaking the re- 93 THE PROPAGATION OF THE GOLDFISH cently fertilized ova of the pike, of almost entire broods of salmon com- posed of fry developed as double and triple monsters, each from a single yolk, by rough and careless handling or shaking of the ova during the early stages of their development; and the production of double monsters of the lobster and of birds by these and similar treatment of the eggs; which led him to the conclusion that the double-tailed goldfishes were produced by this or similar simple practices. The Orientals, by taking the eggs of the normal species and either by shaking or disturbing them in other ways produced some complete double monsters, some with two heads and a single tail, and some with duplicate caudal and anal fins. Of these the double monsters did not survive, but those with duplicated fins may have been kept alive and selections in breeding would continue the tendency to double fins. It is known that crustaceans, batrachians, reptiles and fishes also have the power not only to reproduce lost parts, but of their regeneration in duplicate and triplicate, diverging from the point of mutilation. In tad- poles it has been observed that when the tail is cut off at right angles to the body, the new tip grows straight backwards in normal form, but when the cut is at an acute angle the development is, according to the inclination, either upwards or downwards; and that, if the growth of new material is inter- fered with across the narrow line of the stump, the growth will be to each side, producing a duplication of the part in diverging directions. It has also been noted that this regenerative power diminishes in the higher animals, the last evidence being the reproduction ofextremital parts; and that the rarity of the production of monstrosities, due to disturbance during the development, also diminishes, so that the continuation of these aberrations in successive generations becomes less frequent in the higher animal forms. With fishes, however, the hereditary tendency to duplication of parts is a marked characteristic; and the goldfish and other Cyprinidae tend to the retention of abnormalities; but which, in the natural state of pond ex- istence would be lost,as fishes encumbered with duplicate fins, especially tails, would be less likely to reach maturity than those normally developed, though this sometimes occurs. Under the care of the breeder, however, these are fostered and by selection and careful propagation still further developed, until this tendency becomes a characteristic of the breed, and a considerable portion of the young continue the desired inherited peculiarity. How this tendency is transmitted to the ova of the parent it is difficult to trace, but it is certain that the partially double bodies of the parents have some influence, and that the artificial interference with the ova or 9+ THE PROPAGATION OF THE GOLDFISH with the normal processes of development, influences the first generation and these may transmit the effect and continue the peculiarity in the future generations. Abnormal modifications in the goldfish breeds are not restricted to the fins, but affect the bodv, head and other organs, but in some respects the type is fixed, as in the number of scales in the lateral line and the number of transverse rows ofscales on the body, though a displacement ofthe organs, a shortening ofthe body muscles and ofthe segments of the vertebra, is evident in the shortened bodv; to compensate for which the overlap of the scales and of theirsurface varies very considerable in the different breeds. Variations of the 'head consist most largely in a shortening, bv compression, of thesnoutand ofthe position ofthe mouth, which in some breeds is modified to an almost vertical position. The form and position of the nostrils are also changed on the short snout. The degenerative changes are not alone due to careful selection, but are also attributable to the restraint of an aquarium existence; theenforced disuse ofthe muscles producing an exaggerated growth of all the fins, as "the material saved from expenditure in muscular effort may be expended in growth in another direction, and culminates in a lengthening of all the fins, so that they are an actual hindrance in swimming." The highly bred varieties have become entirely unfitted to existence other than in the aquarium under the fostering care ofthe breeder, and the young of such breeds, it thev survive at all, revert more and more to the ancestral type with each succeeding generation when deprived of this supervision. A sluggishness of habit has also been developed by the Oriental breed- ers, as both the descriptions of authorities on the propagation of the gold- fish and the observations of fanciers prove; and with some of the highly developed varieties has been carried to such extent that harmless fishes of other species must be kept with them in the aquaria to agitate the water and prevent suffocation. Some ofthe races are so monstrously developed and the displacement or the crowding of the swimming bladder so extensive that thev cannot maintain their equilibrium in the water, but assume a position as though standing on their heads or tails, or partly or entirely reversed. Professor Ryder prepared tables of measurements, in millimetres, of the three breeds of goldfishes obtained from Philadelphia breeders in March, 1893, which are here given in condensed form; but it should be stated that at this writing more varieties and even more wonderful developed fishes are sucessfullv bred. 95 THE PROPAGATION OF THE GOLDFISH -o -o ■ j= -o -£ -13 o J « IC (4h bo c « 1 _a 1J .ti ei u -o c O -o _c c c 5? 8 -a c 3 O c o J3 jj U J5 o BO J3 S> c J3 o c c o ao of the tr cavity, bet jf the caud 3 O So c £ o 8.8 T3 to -e .E <** be C C - S t> to "n .£ 8*8 otal length le length o fin. c 4> -J -J ►J c ►J u _o o o 3 > -C J= I) U Pi ra ~° h -C -C Q oS Di _q 90 62 28 364 15 36 25 1:13 1:4.45 2.5:1 74 51 23 213 10 80 19 1:9.25 1:2.85 1:8.3 47 28 19 226 7 36 10 1:11.75 1:4.6 1.33:1 Common Goldfish. Two long bodied Japanese long- tailed Goldfishes. Three short-bodied Japanese double-tailed Goldfishes. He also pointed out that "the large number of capillaries in the huge tail of fine specimens of the 'Kinyiki' and KIN-YU races indicate that the caudal fin may possibly serve in a very important way as an adjunct to branchial respiration", and that "the immense fins of the Japanese double- tailed goldfishes have been developed partially in physiological response to artificial conditions of respiration, that were not as favorable as those enjoyed by their wild congenetors", and, " that the dorsal, anal and caudal fins may be so modified as to minister in an important way to the needs of respiration." Also, "the fact that the very long fins are only fully devel- oped at a very late period of the growth of the animal, is in harmony with the view that the hypertrophy of these organs is associated with a correla- tive degeneration of the muscles of the trunk, and possible use of these structures with their great amount of surface as respiratory organs, in the restricted and badly aerated tanks and aquaria in which they have been bred for centuries." The very red color of the blood in the arteries and capillaries of the fins would indicate the correctness of this hypothesis. The comparisons of the telescopic-eyed goldfishes are equally interest- ing. Professor Ryder states that " the eye-ball becomes greatly elongated in the direction of its optic axis. Sometimes the difference between the axial and equatorial diameter is as much as three millimetres, constituting an extremely myopic form of eye-ball. The form of the eye-ball in the common races is flat or hypermetropic in character. A gradual passage from the hypermetropic to the mvopic form is shown in the following table, as based upon actual approximate measurements of the eye-balls ot individuals of the three races. The size and shape of the globular lens is not appreciably different from that of the other races with smaller eye- balls. It would therefore, seem impossible for the image formed by the lens 9 6 THE PROPAGATION OF THK GOLDFISH of a distant object to be thrown on the retina at all, consequently the condition is one ot near sightedness, or of an optical adjustment for very near objects. The conditions of life ::: * :;: would in their restricted quarters actually foster the development of near sightedness, and any variation in that direction would actually tend to be preserved. * * :;: The name telescope fish in allusion to the protruding eye-balls becomes a misnomer, as the form of the eve is distinctly myopic and short-sighted, and not hypermetropic or far-sighted, as required of an optical organ having tele- scopic capacity." The Chinese designation "Dragon-eyes," would better apply to these breeds of goldfishes. Common Goldfish. Double-tailed Japanese Goldris Telescopic-eved Goldfish. No. i No. 2 — _o — u -O <4H >, _c o oo 1) O *— E o -o H ■o •-5 o ~n X 3 < W 130 7 5 55 5 4 63 6 6 70 6 9 All measurements in millimeters. Dr. S. Watase, in writing "On the Caudal and Anal Fins of Gold- fishes" states that in his opinion, artificial selection has produced the abnormal forms of all the fins, and that in all goldfishes, irrespective of what breed, the tail fin is above all other parts subject to the greatest variation. It is found in one of the following states: i, it has three lobes, one median and two lateral; 2, it consists of two separate halves I paired) giving rise to a four-lobed tail (the " ) 'otsuo-wo") and 3, it is vert- ical and normal. In the first two classes, the lobes are more or less horizontally spread. The simplest transition state from single to double, is seen when the tail, normal in all other respects, has the ventral edge slightly furrowed by a median groove. 97 Fig. 57. Diagram of the vertebra and tail-rays of Goldfishes. 1 Single tail of the Common Goldfish. 2 Tripod tail of the Chinese and Japanese Goldfishes. 3 Webbed tail of the Chinese and Japanese Goldfishes. 4 Double tail of the Japanese Fantail Goldfish. 5 Double tail of the Japanese and Chinese Fringetail and Telescope Goldfishes. THE PROPAGATION OF THE GOLDFISH The greater part of it is vertical and median, but its lower portion occurs double^(the tripod tails) which in some cases extends further upwards!/^ the £ web tail/) » In other instances the furrow may reach the dorsal edge of the tail and thus divide it into two halves, which then expand right and left. These halves may or may not be connected at the median line, at the dorsal edge; in the former case, the tail is represented by a more or less horizontally expanded single piece/ (the dolphin tailjj) in the latter case it is distinctly paired] (the double tailj). Fig. 57. Next to the caudal fin the anal fin undergoes a remarkable variation. It is either median and normal or distinctly paired. In the former case, especially when the caudal fin is also normal, the goldfish closely resembles the carp. In the double form of the anal fin, bony structures similar to those of the single fin are present in pairs. These double fins often make a flapping motion serving the same function as the ventral fins. Examination of the embrios of these breeds of fishes show that the double caudal and anal fins are laid out as two longitudinal folds or thicknesses along the ven- tral side of the post-anal section of the bodv, which diverge at a later period and form paired caudal and anal fins. The internal structures of these parts are also paired. In some of the breeds the anal fin is entirely absent and others have been developed which are devoid of dorsal fins, while the Egg-fish has neither dorsal nor anal fins. Breeding. It is proposed to treat of tank culture first and later of the basin or pool and pond or lake culture, these latter terms being applied to the smaller brick or cement basins and pools or those with earthen or boarded sides, and the larger natural or artificial ponds and lakes. When the breeding is conducted indoors or in a greenhouse the season is earlier than in the open air and spawnings may begin in February, while out-of-doors or in the pond, in a temperate climate, the fishes may not mature the spawn till April, May, or June, after which it may be continu- ous, at short intervals, until the advent of cold weather. Spawning is also dependent upon the temperature of the water and rarely begins until it has reached 6o° F. The period of rest between spawning varies with the fishes and may be but a few days or several weeks, dependent upon their vigor and the temperature of the water. Spawning may occur two days in succession, or at an interval of several days, if the weather becomes colder, to be re- sumed when the water becomes warmer. Of this the surest guide is the appearance of the female and the action of the male, and trials with the latter should be undertaken, the fishes being again separated if no spawn results in a day or two. An occasional change of males is also advisable. Stimu- 98 J THE PROPAGATION OF THE GOLDFISH latingfood and the frequent addition of well-aerated water also greatly aid the spawning. As soon as the spawn is deposited and fecundated, which usually takes place early in the morning, the plants to which it adheres should be placed in the hatching dishes or the parents removed from the tank or rear- ing trough, to prevent their devouring both the spawn and later the young fishes. The fry also prey on each other, and hatchings of different dates should be isolated until the fishes have acquired considerable growth and are of equal size; those of slower development and smaller size to be either put by themselves or with the next younger hatch; where their chances of obtaining food are improved, or the larger and more vigorous ones removed. In breeding fine fishes it will be noticed that the single-tail "sports" always make the most rapid growth, as they are better able to get about than their finer double-tailed brethren. They are also the natural cannibals and prey upon the smaller more perfect fishes. The depth of water for hatching and for the fry should best not exceed 6 to 8 inches and when transfers are made, the dishes and their contents should be submerged and the fry permitted to make their exit at will. Change in the temperature of the water is also usually fatal and must be guarded against in making tranfers and at other times. If there are no facilities for separating the parents and spawn, as in the small way in the house aquarium, a movable partition will serve; but it is best to hatch the spawn in separate vessels which can be placed in good but not too strong light, where eggs and fry will remain undisturbed. Shallow glass, porcelain or enameled dishes, fruit or candy jars, or other simi- lar receptacles will fully answer the purpose, and are generallv emploved. The relative size and vigor of the fishes regulate the number of males and females mated, to which individual judgment is the best guide. With the facilities at hand each female readv to spawn should be placed in a separate compartment with one, two or three males, dependent upon their size; but when the spawning has begun, selection of the finest male should be made, if he is of sufficient size, and the others removed to prevent too great exhaustion of the female. Care should also be exercised to prevent inbreeding by mating fishes of different strain or parentage. Where the number of fishes to be bred is large and of the same breed, it is advisable to select two or three males to one female, when she is the larger, three females and four males when of one size, and six females and four males when the latter are the larger fishes; but this, like much else relating to the culture / of the goldfish is a matter of experience and applies more to the breeding of the ordinary than the finely bred varieties. A change of males is also advisable at different spawnings. 99 THE PROPAGATION OF THE GOLDFISH Should the rearing of the fishes be conducted in the open air, on a large scale or in pools or lakes, much that has been stated will apply; as with whatever method adopted the results are always more certain when the hatching is done in dishes or shallow tanks and the fry only transferred to the rearing ponds when sufficiently developed to find their own nourish- ment and too large to readily fall a prey to their numerous enemies. The temperature and condition of the water is thus under control, the spawn and fry better protected, feeding can be regulated, and a closer supervision had of all the details which lead to success. Attention should also be given to the selection of such breeding fishes, especially with the common goldfish, which evince rapid growth and soonest develop color, as this may vary considerably, some fishes being very vig- orous, growing to a length of 4 to 6 inches in a few months and assuming the desired colors when quite small, while with others this may have been delayed until the following season ; and as these and other tendencies are likely to be transmitted to the progeny, a study of the parents is necessary to insure satisfactory results. In pond or lake culture, where the fishes are turned in and permitted to breed at will, few precautions other than those of water supply, abundant food, protection from freshets and the larger predatory animals are possible; but when the breeding is done in prepared basins or pools, a very consider- able supervision and control of the essential features are possible. A care- ful supervision, even from a business point of view, is advisable, as both the returns and the quality of the fishes are so greatly increased and better as to repay the additional care and labor involved. Should the breeding stock have been sheltered indoors during the winter months, which with the facilities should be done, care must be taken not to transfer them to the open air tanks or basins too early in the spring as serious mortality may result. The fishes have lost much of their hardiness, and are liable to congested colds, affecting the gills and circulatory system. Such fishes should be placed in tanks or spawning beds protected by hotbed sash to moderate the temperature during the night and early morning, until they have once more become acclimated to out-of-door conditions. Though spawning early in the season has a number of advantages from the commercial standpoint, as the young fishes may mature sooner and will be ready for sale when they command better prices, their enemies less numerous, as many of them will not yet have appeared, and thereby assure the arrival at maturity of a greater number, very early spawnings are usually not as robust and vigorous as those of later hatching. THK PROPAGATION OF THK GOI.DIISH Where the breeding is done in protected tanks, in the open air, it has been proven that better results are obtained by delay than by forcing, as these later fishes often outstrip the earlier ones in size and number of survivals at the selling season, which is usually after the month of September; but late spawnings are not advisable, as the young must then be carried over the winter. The age as well as the probable maturity of the goldfish cannot always be determined by the size, the rate of growth not only varying with the individual but is also greatly influenced by the conditions under which it is, or has been, kept. When the surroundings are nearest the natural, growth and development are most rapid ; indoors and in the small aquarium the conditions of existence are artificial and unnatural and may considerably stunt, dwarf or arrest development; but when transferred to larger tanks or basins in the open air, the growth is often surprisingly rapid, the in- crease in size being usually greater in a few weeks than during previous months in the aquarium or greenhouse. The size, however, does not impair the fecundity of the fishes as those of small size and but eight (8) months old will spawn, though, naturally, developing less and apparently smaller eggs than the larger more robust fishes. Some individuals of the imported varieties are dwarfs and never attain a size over three inches; these are particularly desirable for small aquaria. They are fertile and breed as well as larger fishes. Aquarium rearing almost always dwarfs the fishes, but they are usually of finer appear- ance than those reared in the pond, for reasons already given. Under favorable conditions, the goldfish attains to maturity during the spring and summer following that in which it was hatched, and large, vigorous fishes will spawn 1500 to 2000 eggs in a season. It has been established that fishes of the finer toy breeds under two years old have more rounded fins than older fishes, whereby their age may be determined. Also that fishes under four years old are the best for breeding, producing a larger number and more robust young. Though, as stated, any well-lighted room will serve for the culture of the goldfish, especially a properly constructed and equipped greenhouse, having out-of-doors facilities for the young fishes, on a mercantile basis the industry is usually conducted in the open air, either in specially equipped hatching and rearing establishments or in basins and pools fitted for the purpose. There are a number of small and larger plants of this kind in the Eastern Section of the United States, principally devoted to the cul- ture of the common goldfish; but some of the breeders have turned their attention to the more profitable industry of rearing the finer breeds and THE PROPAGATION OF THE GOLDFISH with varying success, as the results of a season's labors depend upon many conditions not yet fully understood but which longer experience may rem- edy. Success with directly imported Japanese and Chinese goldfishes is equally uncertain; the mortality before arrival, from diseases, contracted during transit and before acclimatization, being in such proportion as to make this also a precarious business venture. Importations are made during the most favorable season, the late fall, winter and early spring months, but the results are usually such as soon to discourage many enthu- siasts who otherwise would become profitable customers. The survivors in the home aquarium are so very few that American bred fishes of the choice imported breeds are more desirable and command higher prices, as the percentage of fatalities of imported stock is so considerable as to pre- vent a profitable venture. The greatest discouragement to the breeder is the failure to raise a large proportion of the fishes hatched. This may be due to easily explained reasons or possibly caused by mistakes made in remote stages of the development of the eggs or of the parent fishes; and when the fry perish in unusual numbers, it is not sufficient to seek the cause in recent occurrences but all the conditions of feeding and care of the parents as well the young should be considered and corrections made in the future. At best, the survivals are usually small in proportion to the number hatched and even the most experienced breeders do not expect a greater survival than 20 to 25 percent, of the most promising hatches which have arrived at an age of two or three weeks, after which he should separate the finer de- veloped fishes from the less desirable ones, and of these rarely over 5 per- cent, will be fishes which will be considered perfect in conformation and development by the expert fancier. The least touch will affect the mucous membrane of the alevin and may lay the foundation for a future fungus development, and the fry from very young fishes or those which have not received a sufficient supply of oxygen by overcrowding, or those of parents which have not had a frequent change of water to act as a stimulant some little time before spawning, are usually weaklings and do not survive. Young fishes should be handled with a spoon and never taken out of the water. The constantly growing demand for goldfishes is such that extensive cultivation is certain to be remunerative. In the Eastern States, at some seasons of the year, the supply is often exhausted and dealers complain that fishes are hard or impossible to get; which applies to both the common and the fine breeds and assures a ready market to breeders having the facilities for keeping their stock until times of greatest demand, usually at the Christ- mas season and in the spring when the breeding fishes are sought. THE PROPAGATION OF THE GOLDFISH As it is the purpose of this volume to treat the subject not from the business point of view only but to interest the amateur and professional breeder alike, it is desirable to describe the breeding methods separately beginning with the simplest. The suggestions given should be modified to suit the conditions. Aquarium and Tank Culture. This method is usually employed by amateurs and fanciers with limited facilities, and undertaken as a pleasant diversion. The requirements are an open space, good light, one or more tanks, sawed-off barrels or similar clean and seasoned vessels of varying depth of water, which have been thoroughly scalded, scoured, frequently watered, filled and left standing for one or more months, and on which a growth ofalgse has formed, success always being surer the longer they have been in use for this purpose. They should be placed in a bright and sunny location, accessible to water; clean potted plants placed therein and permitted to stand to accumulate oxygen and the minute animal life which is not only beneficial in removing the refuse, decayed particles of plants and excrement, but also serves as food; care being necessary in the establishment, seasoning and maintenance of the spawning and rearing tanks, which often require more than one season's use to be in perfect condition. When let into the ground they maintain a more equitable tem- perature, but set above the ground are not so accessible to some of the enemies,, frogs and cats among the number. It is advisable to cover the tanks with wire screens as a protection trom the larger enemies. As elsewhere stated, either the parent fishes may be placed into the tanks to spawn and then removed, or the plants to which the spawn ad- heres placed therein and permitted to hatch, the former being the better method as then none of the eggs will be lost. Basin and Pool Culture. Basins and pools may be built of bricks laid in cement or mortar and lined with cement, of cement concrete, or on a good clay bottom with the sides of boards backed by well puddled clay. Their proportions should be such that a careful observation of the entire contents is possible and when based on a factor of 4 or 5 teet many advan- tages will be manifest; that is, a breadth of 4 feet and a length ot 4, 8 and 12 feet; or a breadth of 5 feet and length of 5, 10 and 15 teet, so that glass sashes, wire covering, etc., are interchangeable, the capacity and the number of fishes for each size easily kept in mind, and the available space well occupied by this systematic arrangement. An easily constructed basin is one of circular form with sloping sides, as the earth may be evenly excavated, the bottom leveled off, and brick or concrete sides built directly against and upon them. The action of trost io 3 THE PROPAGATION OF THE GOLDFISH is also less severe on circular than rectangular basins and a basin of this kind is more likely to be lifted off the bottom than to break the sides by the pressure, and is easily repaired by filling in the bottom crack with liquid cement. All tanks should be seasoned before the fishes are introduced by a thorough soaking and frequent changes of water, to remove all traces of soluble lime or acid substances. When not in use, it is a mooted question whether they should be kept dry in winter or partially filled with water to equalize the pressure ot the frozen ground. Good results have been obtained by filling with water and floating logs in them to relieve the sides of ice pressure, while freezing will destroy fungus and disease spores. Greenhouse Culture. Experience has taught breeders of the gold- fish that the principal purpose of the greenhouse is the wintering of the breeding fishes, keeping over young fishes for better prices when the general supply is exhausted, and for spawning, hatching and rearing of the fry during the early weeks of the spawning season, when the possibility of late frosts may endanger them out-of-doors, though early spawning is not to be generally, recommended. Another purpose of the greenhouse is the facilities it affords in con- tinuous growth of the young during the winter months, as aquaria and small household tanks tend to arrest development; also for the preserva- tion of the necessary aquatic plants over winter. Young fishes, however, thrive best in the open air. Compartment tanks and cement basins, shoul'd be arranged to place as many as possible in the available space, and to permit of ready access and inspection. When the weather has become settled, the rearing should be done out-of-doors. Great care must be exercised in seasoning these receptacles. The illustration, Fig. 58, is a greenhouse for goldfish propagation designed by the author, which may be erected in a back yard or garden. All the sash of the sides and roof are hinged, to permit of raising or re- moval in warm weather for the free circulation of air, a prime essential to success. The spawning and hatching tanks are arranged at the sides, to permit ot a central aisle, and the overflow connections led to the drainage by pipes with union joints. The water supply is by a hose. The rearing tanks are shown adjoining the greenhouse but may be located within con- venient distance and should be provided with portable glass sash as covers on cold nights and mornings and with wire screens to keep out enemies. If the screens are of galvanized iron, they should be thoroughly cleansed and seasoned, to remove the acid. 104 THE PROPAGATION OF THE GOLDFISH All the openings are protected by screens, those of the roof by gauze netting and the sides by ' 4 inch-mesh wire screens to exclude obnoxious FIG. 58 Elevation, plan and section of a Greenhouse for Goldfish propagation. A-A Line of section. B Cement basins, '/^'x ]'o"x 1' 4 // . C Shelves and Hatching tanks, 1' \o" x l / 6 /r x l / 1" . D Rearing tanks, 4/ o" x %' o" x \' 1" '. E Oil or gas stove. F Ventilator. G Detail of Roof supports to prevent dripping. insects but to permit small flies, gnats, mosquitoes and other harmless in- sects to enter and deposit their eggs, the larvae serving as food for the young fishes. Heating arrangements other than a portable odorless oil stove or a small coal stove are not required, and these need only be employed in the most inclement weather; experience having proven that goldfishes thrive best when not kept in too warm temperature, 45 ° to 50 F. being better than higher, and if no rapid changes take place those just above freezing are not injurious, except to the transparently-scaled Chinese breeds developed in a warm climate. Warmer water is necessary during the breeding season. The sash of the greenhouse should be arranged to open in the direc- tion of the prevailing summer winds. The principal reasons for failure to rear many young fishes, apart 105 THE PROPAGATION OF THE GOLDFISH from improper feeding and other evident causes, are too much light, par- ticularly strong sunlight, which should be guarded against. Daily ventila- tion is also required, especially when the heating apparatus is in use. Pond and Lake Culture. Figs. 59 and 59A. With this method, the rearing ponds should not be of the same depth of water, but vary from 3 or 4 feet near the outlet to a few inches at the inlet, that the fishes FIG. 59 Plan of a Fish Farm. may seek any desired depth and relieve themselves of the water pressure, but constructed that thev may be entirely drained when necessary, and free from obstructions that they may be seined. Each should have independent inlet and outlet, but also arranged to connect in series, when desired. Ponds should not be formed in streams, but at a safe distance and the water led to them through sluices which can be closed in case of freshets or too muddy water. Each season the ponds should be drained, thoroughly cleaned and the upper layer of soil removed from the bottom. It is also advisable to leave them exposed to frost for a time to exterminate insects and other enemies. One or more small isolated emergency ponds, containing' a plentiful growth of plants and arranged for draining, should be established; into which fishes may be placed in case of mishap, serve as reserve ponds for temporary storage, utilized for fishes of retarded growth, or for the separa- tion from the general stock of selected future breeders. A small basin dug into the soil or having a soil bottom, thickly grown with aquatic vegetation, to supply the water with oxygen and for the pro- pagation of the live food, should be arranged between the water supply and the rearing ponds; and if the water is derived from a spring it should not be too near the ponds, that it may not be of too low temperature and also in flowing over stones or artificially constructed ripples absorb a large quantity of air, as spring water is deficient in oxygen. The water of a shaded cold-water brook is preferable, river or pond water is not as desir- able on account of its rising temperature in the hot summer months. 106 THE PROPAGATION OF THK ( ,( )| DI'IS] I , .ntfah'gimtlxf. Ponds dug into the earth or constructed by dams are less expensive than those built of bricks or concrete, but the latter are more easily super- vised, as the perpendicular sides offer a clear view ot the contents and protection from the direct rays of the sun during hot afternoons. However constructed, shrubbery and shade trees should be planted along the banks and a luxuriant growth of water plants encouraged in them, restricted to localities where they will be under control. For this purpose Cabomba, Myriophyllum, Giant Anacharis and Ludwfgia mulerttii are best and will JL rind a ready market; but floating bunches of watercress will root and thrive on the surface, furnish oxygen and offer convenient hiding places and shade for the fishes and homes for the small aquatic fauna constitut- ing the natural food; having the ad- ditional advantage of ready removal when desired. No plants other than these and lilies should be introduced or permitted to grow. Sagittaria will not grow out-of-doors. All sod should be removed from the bottom and the sides at the water level to prevent the injurious decay of vegetable matter. Feeding tables in the water are not advisable as they may become foul from decaying matter, culture places for parasites and sate retreats and lurking places for enemies which shun the light of day. The fishes soon learn to congregate in the desired localities at the regular feeding time and will keep the bottom clean and clear of food, if not overted. Let it here be again noted that goldfishes of the fine breeds become more course in large bodies of water than those reared in small tanks and basins. Specially Equipped Goldfish Breeding Establishment. The illustration, Fig. 60, is an ideal arrangement for a large artificially con- structed breeding establishment for fine fishes. Its location would best be in the country near an abundant supply of clear, moderately cold-water, FIG. 59A Sectional views of Sluices and Ponds. THE PROPAGATION OF THE GOLDFISH derived from a constant spring or shaded brook; the best site beinga sunny location, a natural valley or a hollow, sheltered by hills or woods in the direction of the prevailing cold winds. i ■ 1 J i £-.-.=_-= ^,-iL-E^ t*fe= ' 53 =.-.-.=£■ ft r-|* f]i ji • ■. » i — Jr-^ it ij 1 I I ij i! ; Ij 1; ill Hi ii « ijp C3V 3r" fa ^\ ^t^ mm FIG. 6o Arrangement for a large Fish-culture Establishment for the propagation of the Goldfish. A central greenhouse is surrounded by rearing and breeding basins; a shed containing the water collecting tank and a pump; the water supply and drainage system is indicated, and the premises surrounded bv a board fence, sheltering embankment and shrubbery. An establishment of this size with sufficient breeding fishes, after a 108 THE PROPAGATION OF THE (.< M.DFMI successful season, should produce many thousands of goldfishes of both the common and the highly prized Oriental breeds, for which there would always be a constant and remunerative demand. The Paradise Fish, Ide and Tench could also be cultivated. Pond Aquaria. Vol. VII of the Bulletins of the U. S. Fish Com- mission, 1887, gives two excellent suggestions for pond aquaria which are here reproduced and no better explanation can be given than to quote the accompanying article by Mr. Wm. P. Seal: — "With this idea in view I offer the following suggestion for the consideration of those in- terested in the establishment of large aquaria, hoping for further development through interchange of ideas. The plan or principle herein suggested might be termed not inaptly Pond-Aquaria, it being essentially a combination ot the pond and the aquarium; the aquaria being constructed on the margin of the pond or reservoir used, as shown in the accompanying illustration, Fig. 61 ; the FIG. 61 Pond Aquarium. idea being to have a water-pen or pond-garden (A) extending back from each aquarium front, and to be surrounded by a wire or other fence or partition (B) of sufficiently small mesh to pre- vent the escape of the occupants, but large enough to allow the smaller fry, which would furnish them with food, to pass through freely. (C) represents the glass fronts. (D) the upper or perforated aquarium bottom, which allows the escape to a lower funnel-shaped bottom (E) of all sedimentary deposits. (F) represents rocky eminences containing pockets, in which could be planted aquatic vegetation at depths adapted to their needs. The whole creating a close ap- proximation of natural conditions. An arrangement of wire gates would keep fishes in close confinement for short periods for observation, or would keep some, while others were allowed to roam at will in their domain. Fig. 61 a represents a cross-section of the same, showing building over the aquaria, and greenhouse roof to pond-gardens. The advantages of some such plan will, I think, be apparent to all who have experience on the subject at least. It is simply imitating nature more closely and getting rid of artificialities. The conditions would afford natural vegetation, sunlight, mud, sand, and rocks, with abundance of room in which to move about freely and seek for natural food. By such a plan also the necessity for circulatory apparatus is dispensed with, the circula- tion caused by the movements of the fishes, changes of temperature and evaporation, together with the aeration or oxygenation affected by the plant life being ample, as in the pond. 109 THE PROPAGATION OF THE GOLDFISH It might be argued that, with so large a space, fishes would keep hidden from view. The experience of the writer has been that when the fear of danger is removed and animals become confident of an ability to escape at will when threatened by danger they lose their timidity and 1 ■I H B MM EP PO IIB- A Q Wn i*. FIG. 6ia Section of Enclosure for a Pond Aquarium. become both bold and curious, and are more easily and satisfactorily viewed than when under the influence of fear in close confinement. The deer, the most timid of animals, when confi- dent of safety, becomes perfectly content, and without desire to escape except to seek its kind for company. The experience of the writer in the care of fishes and reptiles and other animals as well, is to the same effect." FIG. 62 Grotto at the Central Station of the U. S. Fish Commission, at Washington, D. C. Aquarium Grotto. The same authority describes the aquarium grotto attached to the Fish Commission building at Washington, of which the herewith reproduced illustrations give an adequate idea. Figs. 62 and 63. Wintering Goldfishes. In the household the fall, winter and spring months are the seasons when the aquarium is the most appreciated, and con- siderations for wintering are for the surplus fishes and breeders, or for THK PROPAGATION OF THE GOLDFISH such as have been kept in outdoor tanks and basins in favorable weather but which must be otherwise accommodated during the rigors of cold weather. The best success is had when fine fishes are kept only about four months in household aquaria, after which they should be placed out- of-doors. FIG. 63 Flan of Grotto at the Central Station of the Fish Commission, at Washington, D. C. The ordinary goldfish will survive out-of-doors, if the ice is broken to admit air. The tanks should be of sufficient depth so as not to freeze solid, and straw or other materials should be packed about them for protec- tion. A board cover, with straw spread over it, should also be provided, to moderate the cold. An approved method is to permit an inch of ice to form, after which a hole should be cut and sufficient water removed to make a space of two inches between the ice and the water, and the hole closed with a cloth and a board. If the sides are protected, the cold will not cause a further freezing, and the air space will prevent suffocation. The top of the tank may also be covered, after which the fishes will be in comfort until the advent of spring. Feeding is only necessary at long intervals. The fine breeds should be wintered in a greenhouse or in the cellar. Tanks or similar vessels will serve, but the best receptacles are fibre wash- tubs. These should be set upon supports near a window, for occasional ventilation, but no plants introduced unless the light is such that they will grow. The fishes should have ample water, five gallons per fish, it possible, and once a week a pail or two of water should be siphoned from the bottom around the edges, where the excrement will accumulate, and a like quantity of fresh water added, which has been moderated in tempera- ture. Feeding should be light, once a week, and but a small quantity of nutritious food given. Fishes so wintered will remain in fine condition, THE PROPAGATION OF THE GOLDFISH the only danger being a possible lack of aeration in the absence of plants, which should be guarded against by the occasional partial change of water. Where there are facilities for water supply and drainage an excellent plan is to arrange an overflow pipe and a constant very small inflow of fresh water. A sheet of glass suspended vertically over the tank, to which a very small hose is attached, will occasion a constant dripping to both aerate the water and moderate its temperature. A very consider- able constant water supply has been found to be objectionable, as the low temperature of the water direct from the mains in winter is injurious to the finer goldfishes, which have been bred and kept in a warm climate and lack the hardiness of the common goldfish. Snowwater is usually fatal to the finer breeds. Goldfishes are sometimes kept over in tubs in moderately warm cellars without any attention or food, and though they have survived, this is an inadvisable practice and an unnecessary cruelty. Wintering in large aquaria and tanks is best, and should be adopt- ed wherever the facilities are to be had. Any unoccupied light room will serve, and temperatures above freezing are not injurious, except possible to the transparently scaled fishes, if no sudden changes occur. Under these conditions aquatic plants can usually be kept in growing condition to supply the required oxygen. The water should be occasionally partially changed. CHAPTER VI Food and Feeding FOOD AND FEEDING OF GOLDFISHES AND OTHER FRESHWATER FISHES One of the fundamental principles of dietetics is that the chemical composition of food should conform with the chemical composition of the body and that those which furnish this in the best proportion are not only the most nutritious but also best maintain the animal organism in its most perfect condition. For this reason the diet of coldblooded animals should consist most largely of vegetal substances and of coldblooded animals, their natural food, as having no body temperature to maintain they do not re- quire as large a proportion of the rich hydrates of carbon and other heat- producing foods necessary to warmblooded animals. Experiments with food fishes have demonstrated that with this natural food the fry will grow seven times more rapidly than on a diet of mammal flesh. Dietaries for mature goldfishes may be divided into several classes : Barely subsistence diets, leading to semi-starvation, stunting and deformities; healthy diets, producing normal growth, vigorous health and fine develop- ment ; fattening diets, leading to coarseness of appearance, insufficient fin development, indolence and predisposition to disease; overfattening diets, producing disturbances of the digestive system and a suppression of the reproductive organs; and overfeeding, which leads to water contamination diseases, asphyxiation and death. Barely sustaining dietsusuallyoccur from the dread ofoverfeeding orfrom overstocking, and reduce the fishes to a point below healthy development. When the fishes are starved in infancy they become permanently stunted, the bones hardening so that no subsequent care or feeding will cause them to expand sufficiently to permit of normal growth ; for which reason the early feeding stages are the most important in the rearing of fine fishes and require intelligent understanding of their wants and requirements. Healthy diets imply not only a sufficient quantity of food, but those com- posed of the proper constituents to stimulate active assimulation, to supply all the needs of the animal organism in proper proportion and to produce a vigorous growth, fine development of both body and fins, a clean and elegant appearance, and robust health. Fattening diets are such as cause overstimulation and excessive nutrition by their too considerable richness of composition and produce fishes lacking in vitality, and the elegance of appearance and fine fin development, noticeable in those more carefully reared. This is sometimes attributed to pond culture, but is as often due to 115 FOOD AND FEEDING highly nutritious food excessively fed, so that the labor of procuring a livelihood is reduced to a minimum and by constant gorging the fishes become coarse and misshapen. Excess of food also produces disorders of the digestive system and the consequent liver affections. Overfattening diets will produce in the goldfish the same results as in other animals and an overaccumulation of flesh or fat will invariably be followed by a partial or total sterility, just as the removal of the genital organs will produce a rapid accumulation of flesh. Overfeeding is a most serious evil as verv many of the diseases may be directly or remotely traced to this cause and its attendant results. Sufficient food should be given, as much as will be at once eaten, and to fully satisfy the hunger, all additional feeding is a source of danger to the fishes. It was formerly supposed that the carp subsisted on vegetal food only, but it is now known that its principal diet consists of snails, crustaceans infusoria and other small aquatic fauna, it also deriving albumen and soluble hydrates of carbon from the minute aquatic flora and the young shoots and roots of plants; and this applies to all the Cyprinidae, including the goldfish. In the aquarium, fully developed goldfishes should not be fed oftener than once a day in warm weather and on alternate days or intermittently when the weather is coid or the temperature of the water low, receiving less than one per cent, of their judged average weight of nutritious food, regulated that it will be immediately consumed, not carried offand later disgourged to contaminate the water. All fishes can live a long time without food and experience enables the culturist to judge from general appearances when they are sufficiently fed. Whenever they are crowded in a small space feeding should be done with additional care or the equilibrium may be disturbed, even with a very considerable plant growth. Inferior, stale or sour food should never be fed, and the feeding and care of the fishes should be vested in one reliable person. Feeding the Fry. The foregoing more particularly applies to grow- ing and mature goldfishes ; the important considerations of feeding the alevin and fry require special mention, as this greatly influences the devel- opment of the finely bred forms. When too sparingly fed or at long intervals, the exertion of procuring food necessitates an activity detrimen- tal to the development of the desired short bodies and large fins, while sufficient nutrition tends to slothfulness, an easy existence and the conse- quent fuller development of these desired characteristics. A short rotund body also requires a shortening and crowding of the alimentary organs together with a partial displacement of others ; the double tail and long fins further hampering the movements of the fish, so that any active strug- 116 FOOD AND FEEDING gle for food can only tend to the elimination of the finest fry and the sur- vival of the better adapted but undesired long-bodied, single-tailed fishes. To achieve most certain results, a careful observation of the following suggestions is advisable : — Kxperience has proven that it is best to take the spawn and the plants to which it adheres from the spawning bed or tank and place them into filtered water to hatch, thus largely avoiding the danger of the presence of fungus spores and enemies; but it is well to introduce a few pots of clean growing plants to supply the necessary oxygen and prevent the asphyxiation of the hatching fry. Immediately after hatching, the alevin is still attached to the umbilical sac and requires no other food than is furnished by it and that present on the plants and in the water ; but after its absorption young fishes may be fed on rice flour scattered on the surface of the water, or a little of the broth of oat meal, but the best food is the natural pond-life food, and this should be continued until it is 3 + to i inch long, when prepared foods may be fed, if natural food is no longer to be obtained. Together with the plants a small dish containing clean soil should be introduced,as it contains substances necessary for nutrition and will stimulate the development and propagation of infusoria, the minute animal life which is the natural first food of the newly hatched alevin. This is manifested by the greenish color of the water, which is also in part due to the presence of tiny vegetal life, the diatoms and other small alga;. After the fry have reached the age of a week, a half pint of water of pronouncedly green color, taken from a tank in which a considerable growth of alga; has col- lected, should be added every few days, then after a week live food should be fed. It should be here repeated that a low temperature of the water and insufficient light will seriously affect the survival of the fry, as the gener- allv accepted opinion that fishes do not feed freely when the weather is cloudy and the water cold applies to young goldfishes; but strong sunlight must be avoided, as that also is injurious. When the stage of feeding live food has been reached, it should be given in liberal quantity about three or four times a day, carefully screened that only the smallest entomostraca are introduced into the rearing tanks; and though it has been observed that when very abundant the larger may prev upon the young fishes, it is always the weaklings which are attacked and these can be dispensed with; the healthy and vigorous young fishes escape these attacks or but few succumb. 117 FOOD AND FEEDING Natural Food. The live food consists of the following Crus- tacean denizens of still water ditches, ponds and streams, which are classified as follows: Phyllopoda. Entomostraca f Branchiopoda. | Cladocera. I Ostrocoda. Copopoda. Crustacea Malacostraca Amphipoda Isopoda. Decapoda. Entomostraca. This sub-class of the Crustaceans are simple organ- isms usually of small, often microscopic size. Order Phyllopoda. Body segmented, covered with a carapace, swimming feet with branchial sacs, man- dables without feelers, and reduced maxillae. Sub-order Branchiopoda. Body distinctly segmental, numerous pairs of swimming feet, shieldshaped carapace, heart an elongated dorsal vessel with numerous pairs of ostia. Branchipus Stagnalis. Fig. 64. This freshwater Crustacean, known as the Spring-time shrimp, reaches a length of 1.5 to 2 centimeters. The body is covered with a segmental mantle, the head is large and the abdomen furnished with caudal appendages. It has eleven pairs of legs, furnished with breathing and swimming hairs, two pairs of antennas, and a lengthened caudal appendage with swimming bristles. The crablike eyes are large and distinct. The almost transparent body is of bluish-green color on the back, the head, sides of the abdomen and the swimming bristles yellow, the antennae and caudal appendages red, and the eyes black. Its food consists of tiny water animalculae and algae, but it will attack spawn and young fishes. It usually swims on its back and is never at rest; the movement is eratic, either by quick stagnalis. Greatly enlarged, strokes of the legs or by springs in the water by means of a rapid movement of the abdomen. A good food for adult goldfishes, and other freshwater fishes. Apus Cancriformus. Fig. 6$. This freshwater Crustacean may occur in great numbers or entirely disappear for years. In form it re- sembles the Limulus or King Crab in miniature, as it never exceeds 3 centimeters in length. The body is flat, covered by a shieldlike mantle, and the slender tail is as long as the body. On the shell there are two 118 FIG. 64. Branchipus FOOD AND FKKDING paired and one central single eye. It has two pairs of threadlike an- tennae. Under the shell there are 60 pairs of gilled legs, of which the first pairs are developed into anten- nae-like feelers. It swims on the back and steadily moves through the water by rapid undulating strokes ofthe legs. The periodic appearance of this Crustacean may be due to the fact that the eggs must be subjected J to a period of incubation in the dry earth. The food ' consists of water animalculse and decaying vegetation. It is the larvae and young of these Branchiopods which constitue the food of the mature goldfish, the adult being of too large size to be readily 1 r ^ • * *_ 11 x.1_ /"■ C j.1. r 11 FIG. 6c. Apus cancritormus. taken. It is principally the Crustaceans or the follow- Greatly enlarged. ing sub-order Cladocera which constitute their live food. Sub-order Cladocera. Compressed body small, indistinctly seg- mented, enclosed in a bivalve carapace, four or six swimming feet, and the posterior antennae developed as longer swimming feet. The most general forms are Daphnia, Polyphemus and Leptodora. Daphnella, Sida and Ciriodaphnia also belong to this sub-order. Daphnia. Fig. 66. Four or five species of Daphnia, known to the goldfish breeder by their light green, dark green, red and reddish colors, abound at different seasons in almost every still or stagnant water. Their size is from .75 to 1.5 millimeters. The segmentation ofthe body is imperfect, the Crustacean being covered bv a folded carapace. The head is distinct and the abdomen is turned downward and is in constant movement. The long antennae are moved at longer or shorter intervals, making the progress a series of rapid starts and stops. Between the abdomen and the carapace of the female is a large brood pouch in which the eggs are stored and hatched and the larvae only make their escape when they have reached the free-swimming stage. The paired eyes have fused into a single organ. There are five pairs of swimming legs on the thorax. The re- production of the Daphnia is most curious. During the summer the female develops spores, which, without fructification by the male, develop in the brood pouch to perfect Daphnia in four days, and which, when they have become liberated, in a few days reproduce in the same manner. In the fall of the year the much smaller males appear and the sexual repro- duction takes place. Winter eggs are produced, the thick shells of which protect them through the cold season. The food of the Daphnia is de- FIG. 66. Daphnia pulex. Greatly enlarged. II 9 FOOD AND FEEDING caving vegetation, organic offal and small infusoria. They are the best food for the goldfish. It has been noticed that the tiny newly hatched alevin will follow Daphnia to feed upon the young as they are released from the brood pouch of the female. The most generally distributed forms are Daphnia I^evis, D. pellucida, D. pu/ex, Daphnella branchyura^ Ceriodaphnia pulchella and Sida crystallina. Polyphemus. Fig. 67. One species of Polyphemus is quite gener- allv present in still and stagnant water. This is P. pedeculus y of which the body is of most grotesque form, owing to the peculiar humplike brood pouch. It is smaller than the Daphnia, about .65 to 1 millimeter in length. Leptodora. Fig. 68. One form of Leptodora is quite generally present in larger bodies of freshwater, fig. 67. Polyphemus , , r I'll t-^i pedeculus. Greatly enlarged. and may be taken on the surface on bright days. 1 he body is long and is covered by a faintly segmented carapace. There are two long swimming legs and the very long antennae branch at the ends and are furnished with swimming bristles. L. hyalina is the most generally dis- tributed form. Its length is about 1 to 1.5 millimeters. Sub-Order Ostracoda. Com- pressed body small, indistinctly seg- no. 68. Leptodora hyaiina. Greatly enlarged. mented, in a bivalve shell, five pairs of feet adopted to swimming and creeping. The freshwater form is Cypris. Cypris. Fig. 69. Several species are very generally distributed and may be taken from almost every water which contains the other entomos- traca. The body is unsegmented and is enclosed in a carapace articulated at the dorsal edge to form a bivalve shell. At ^^M^?*: the anterior end is a median eye, and there are seven pairs of swimming appendages. Its size is 1 to 1.5 millimeters, and its movements are slow and leisurely either in swimming or in crawling over the bottom. The young are developed in the brood pouch but are expelled in the larvel condition. This Crustacean propagates even more abundantly than the Daphnia, and will prey upon the eggs and embrios of fishes, a number of them may attack an alevin, fastening themselves to its surface and devouring it in spite of efforts to free itself. Goldfishes eagerly eat the Cypris. The generally distributed forms are Cyprisvirens, C. pubera, C. pellucida, C. fusca and C. ornata. FIG. 69. Cypris virens. Greatly enlarged. FOOD AND FEEDING ^ FIG. 70 — Cyclops thomasi. Greatly enlarged. Sub-Order Copopoda. Body small, distinctly segmented, the fore- most segment fused with the head; antenna:, mandables and maxillae well developed, six pairs of swimming feet in the free-swimming freshwater forms, which consist of the Cyclops and Canthocamptus. Cyclops. Fig. 70. Ten or twelve closelv allied forms abound in still and stagnant water. Their size is 1 to 1.5 millimeter. The segmen- jt&LJfa tation of the body is perfect, the Crustacean being * covered with a carapace of which the first segment is fused with the head. Two long antenna are present and but a single eye. The swimming legs are attaches to the thorax, and the lengthen- ed abdomen is provided with caudal appendages. Their food is organic substances, infusoria and algas, and their movements are steady and regular as though propelled by driving wheels. The most generally distributed are C. thomasi, C. gyrinus, C. agi/is, C. edax 3 C. modest as, C. ater and C. viridis. Canthocamptus is rare in the Eastern and Middle states and occasionally occurs as an unrecognized species. These Copopods possess extraordinary fecundity. In the winter they seek the bottom and hibernate, but when the water reaches a temperature of 45 to 50 F. they revive, their increase being greatest at 65 to 70 V .; when the female every two days develops two egg sacs or external uteri, wherein 16 to 32 eggs are hatched. In two days these become detached, fall to the bottom where the young, almost globular cyclops, having four legs but no tail, undergo a molting in about 15 days, when the other feet and the tail form. In another 15 days they mature and reproduce. Car- bonate of lime is necessary in the formation of their shells. They thrive in water infused with vegetal matter in decomposition, but as it does not contract any odor of decomposition it is probable that they live on the infusoria. Potamogeton, Ceratophyllum and Fountain cress, upon which algae and voucheria will form are usually present to sustain the infusoria. Young goldfishes usually reject Cyclops when they can obtain Daphnia. It has also been observed that some species of Cyclops feed upon fish spawn and will attack very young fishes. Malocostraca. These highly organized Crustacea have the thorax of eight and the abdomen of seven segments. The sub-order Amphipoda are shrimplike forms with stalked eyes; the Isopoda have depressed or flat- tened bodies and gills borne on the abdomenal appendages; and the Decapoda have the thoracic segments united with the head in a carapace, 121 FOOD AND FEEDING ^ the three anterior pairs of limbs as foot-claws and the five pairs of posterior limbs as walking legs. The eyes are stalked and the gills thoracic. Sub-Order Amphipoda. This sub-order includes the Water-fleas and the marine Sand-hoppers, of which one genus is present in both running and standing fresh water. Gammarus. Fig. 71. This freshwater Crustacean, known as the Water- flea and Fairy Shrimp, G^/«?;mr//j^«/ t ally the carplike fishes, often in such numbers as to cause the death of both young and mature fishes, especially the very young. Other species which have freshwater fishes as hosts are G. carassiuscu/us, G. cochlea and G. tenuis. These parasites also attack, the surface of fishes and amphibia and burrow into the skin under the scales, where they produce inflammations and raw surfaces which form seats for fungi and ultimately Fie. 80. Gyrodactyms eiegans. cause the death of the fishes. Gyrodactylida are among the most frequent parasites which affect the goldfish in the aquarium and breeding tank. The North American Aspidocotylea and Malacocotylea consist of Paramphistomida\ Fasciolida^ Sc/iistosomidte, Holostomidce, Gasterostomid.c, Didymozobnidtf and Monostomida'; divided into 35 sub-families, 134 genera and 22 related genera, parasitic in Vertebrates, of which the following species are found in freshwater fishes and amphibia of the United States: — A Trematod Parasite. Greatly enlarged. Species Host Part Inhabited Distomum areolatum White Perch Ml intestine ' rufoviride Striped Bass " << t seriate Salmon a kidneys <■ tenue Striped Bass < < intestine < " tenuissime White Perch at peritoneum ' auriculatum Lake Sturgeon tt intestine « grandiporum Eel " stomach ' gracile Sunfish, Goldfish tt liver and intestines « Iaureatum Sucker 1 1 alimentary canal « polymorphism Pike 1 1 bladder ( Red-eye Bass, Blac ( and Goldfish k Bass intestines, Diplostomum cuticola tt- (liver and heart, ''' Gasterostoma gracilcscens Carp and other Cyp rinida; 1 1 intestines Octoplectanum affine Sun Fish tt gills Stcphanochasmus tenuis Striped Bass, White Perch 1 1 intestine Tr is torn a elongatus Sturgeon 1 1 gills Mono s torn um spatulutum f\ rn < anil other Fresh- v " lr P X water Fishes. 1 1 intestines and liver << amjtfri Catfish 1 1 bladder Cephalogonimus vesicaudus Softshell Turtle 1 1 intestine Distomum chelydree Snapping Turtle 1 1 i t Pie orchis mollis Mud Turtle 1 i lungs Telorchis an gust us Painted Turtle tt intestine Amphistorna subclavatum Frog and Tadpole it it Bfandesia arcana c< 1 1 phyloris Distomum quietus << i i intestine Gorgodero csgnoides < < 1 1 bladder < < amplicara < < 1 1 1 1 " simplex << i t mouth Halipegus ovocaudalus a i t liver Holostomu m nutidus < < 1 1 intestine Ostioleum formosum < < 1 1 " Cymotocarpus hospitalis n << << '< 1 1 Distomurr quietus Salamander tt bladder << ascoideum Snails tt intestines, etc. < < coronarium '* Molluscs, Alligator tt it a •4" AILMENTS AND DISEASES FIG. 8 1 Distomum gracile, a Trematod par- asite. Greatly enlarged. FIG. 82 Diplosto- mum cuttcola, a Trema- tod parasite. Greatly enlarged. FIG. 83. Gaiter ostoma gracilescens, Trematod parasite. Greatly enlarged. Cestoda or Tapeworms. This group comprises the Tapeworms and other cystic Entozoa which are parasitic during the greater part of their lives; with some species the eggs only are free during certain periods to change their residence. The Cestoda are taken as one group or sub-order, the Pseudophyllidce, which consists of five families, the Bothriocephalidtf, Tetraphy/lidte, Cyclophyllid< << ' ' terebrans *' and Chub c< << Schistocephalus dimorphus Sculpin, etc. " abdominal cavity 1 ' solidus Stickleback and Cyprinida- ( ( 1 1 j t and iniisnil.tr tissues Taenia savelini Whitefish " intestine " ocellata Rock Bass c< it ' ' di la tat a Eel n a Tricu/pidaria nod ill us Bass, Perch and Pike 1 a \ FIG. 84 BothriocephaL proboscideus, a Cestod para- site. Twice natural size. FIG. 85 Ligula iimplicissima, a Ces- tod parasite. Nat- ural size of imma- ture form, the adult is parasitic in Mam- mals. \ FIG. 86 Schis- \ tocephalus solidus, a I Cestod parasite. ' Immature form, 6 to I 5 mm. long, the adult is parasitic in Aquatic Birds. I48 AII.MKNTS AND DISEASES Probably the most frequent forms of Cestode parasites are Schistoceph- alus solidus and allied species, which occur in many freshwater fishes in FIG. 87 Stickleback affected with Sihiitoaphalus solidus; showing enlargement of side and abdomen. Slightly enlarged. immature forms. Figs. 86, 87 and 8 8. As adults they have fish-feeding birds and mammals as hosts. FIG. 89 Ascaris acus, a Nematod parasite. I . Immature forms, enlarged. 2. Subsequent adult form, enlarged. FIG. 88. Section of a Stickleback, showing cvsts of Schistocephalus solidus. Slightly enlarged. Xematoda or Roundworms. This group comprises the round and thread worms. They include a large number of families which occur abundantly in all genera of the Vertebrates and are more numerously and uniformly distributed than the individual members of the other parasitic orders. They have not apparently had the attention of Helminthologists that has been given to many other groups and the literature is fragmentary and widely scattered. Mention will here be made of the six principal families and the more generally distributed species. Ascarid/f. and Cheiricanthid^:. These parasites inhabit higher Vertebrates, principally birds and mammals, but two Nematods, bearing close resemblance to Ascaris teniussima, have been found in Western trout. Ascaris acus in the adult form is encysted in the intestines of pike, bass and trout, Fig. 89. Its immature existence is spent in the minnow, dace and other Cyprinidae and with them is introduced into the subsequent host. CucuLLANiDiE. Several species of these parasites occur in freshwatcr 149 AILMENTS AND DISEASES FIG. 90. Cucullanus elegans, a Nematod parasite. Length of female 1 5 mm., male 8 mm. fishes. These are Cucullanus foveolatus of the sunfish, and C. elegans of the perch and the Cyprinidae, Fig. 90. Filarid^. These parasites are more common to the marine fauna. Filaria piscius is found spirally coiled within the tissues of the herring, cod and whiting. A number of other species of this family occur in similar hosts and in warm-blooded animals. Gordiid^. These parasites take up a free existence in damp earth and penetrate the bodies of insects and their larvae. Some gain access to fishes by this means, where they become encysted in the tissues. Anguillulid^. These minute free intestinal thread- worms usually have the higher Vertebrates as hosts, but some species are parasitic in aquatic molluscs and in insect larvae. They are very widely distributed; the so-called Vinegar-eel, Anguillus aceti, belongs to this order. All the other families of this group are parasites of higher Vertebrates. Acanthocephala or Thorn-headed Worms. This group con- sists of members having vermiform bodies and otherwise resemble the Nematoda, but differ in having spine-covered heads by which they attach themselves to their hosts. They are now included in the single familv Echinorhynchidae, which infests all classes of Vertebrates and are one of the more frequent parasites of fishes and amphibia. Over 100 species have been described, a considerable number in the Cyprinidae; and of these Echinorhynchus proteus is the most abundant species, of which the immature form inhabits the smaller crustaceans, especially Gammarus and Asellus y to be transferred with them to freshwater fishes. Other FIG. 91. Echinorhynchus pro- teus, an Acanthoce- phalous parasite. Intermediate and Adult forms. Greatly enlarged. FIG. 92. Echinorhynchus angustatus, an Acanthocephalous parasite. Length 22 to 25 mm. Enlarged. F 'g- 93- Echinorhynchus anthuris, an Antho- cephalous parasite. Greatly enlarged. common forms are E. angustatus, E. clav^eceps, E. anthuris, E. globulosus, and E. tuberosus in the Salmonidae and similar fishes. Some of these and E. clavula, E. fusiformis and E. pachysoma frequently occur in other fresh- water fishes, principally the Cyprinidae. E. anthuris also occurs in the Water newt, and E. inflexus in the Snapping turtle. The Echinorhynchidae cause 150 AILMENTS AND DISEASES .<*$:■, h $$$<\ epidemics in fishes and in immature and adult forms have been found in such numbers in the gills of young goldfishes as to cause the death of en- tire hatchings. These worms grow to such size that they force the opercular from the sides of the head and produce death from exhaustion and inability of the fishes to breathe. No preventive means or parasiticides have been devised to eradicate these destructive parasites, most of the species of which do not exceed i cm. in length, and many of them are much smaller. Hirudinid/e or Leeches. These parasites are divided into two groups, the Rhynchobdellidce which pierce the tissues of their hosts by means of a fine protrusile stomodaeum or proboscis, and the Gnathobdellida- which bite their prey by means of triangular horny jaws. They are carniv- "^SWSWH^ orous oblong and generally depressed ^m8HB contractile worms, having the mouth "*^^f J--'j-'; ', encircled with a lip and a flat disc at \£JM&, the posterior end, both adopted to ad- here to other bodies and to serve as organs ot locomotion. Leeches abound in both fresh and salt water and in tropical countries some forms live on k 1 ?' 9 t* k Pi ff a f u " du '^ ** Car P; le fi; at ," the land secreted among leaves. Fishes, tached to the head or a young Small-mouthed Black ° Bass, siighty enlarged. frogs and turtles are most frequently attacked, but they also attach themselves to other animals which come to the water to drink. The larger blood-sucking forms are Hirudo and Macrobdella; and the true parasitic forms belong to Ichthyobdella, Cystobranchus and Clepsine which feed principally on fishes, and Nephilis and Aulastomus on snails and worms. The North American leeches which prey on freshwater fishes and amphibia are the species Piscicola funduli> known as the Carp-leech, Figs. 94 and 95, P. punclata, Actinobdella inequiannulata>P hilobdella graci/e, Clepsine e/egans, and C. par- asitica. Young leeches infest the gills of fishes, especially the fry, literally packing them solid, and gorge themselves Pistiolafunduii J ' . . Enlarged 4 diameters with the blood, causing the death of their hosts. These epidemics sometimes occur with broods of goldfishes. The only remedy is to clean the tanks and destroy the aquatic plants. Cures of leech infested fishes have been made by the brackish water treatment and by injecting salt water into the gills. A very minute leech-like polyp Trkhodina pediculus, Fig. 96, is usually parasitic on freshwater polyps but frequently changes to fishes as AILMENTS AND DISEASES FIG. 96 Trichodina pediculus a Hirudinid parasite. Greatly enlarged. its host; and produces tiny red external, gill and throat ulcers into which it is pitted like a cancer. When present in numbers it is a dangerous parasite and has been found on fishes afflicted with what is popularly known as Twitters. It has a nearly circular ciliated body and on its lower side a suctoral disc. Arachnia or Arachnid Parasites. This group includes the Mites, Ticks, etc., of which some of the aquatic species are discussed in the appendix to the Aquatic Insects. One family, Trachearia, contains strictly parasitic genera, and the Acharid* and Hydrachnida? have parasitic and predatory members which subsist largely on the freshwater fauna. The common form is the red Water-mite, Hydrachna geographical Fig. 97. With five other families of this group parasitism is but slight and on the higher Vertebrates. Crustacea or Crustacean Parasites. This group includes the so-called Fish Lice, small crustaceans known as Epizoa, and belonging to the families Lern^ed^e, Caligid<£ and Argulidee. Lern^ed^ and Caligid/e. The members of these families rarely occur as parasites on "the freshwater fauna, having those of saltwater as hosts; but some are brought into freshwater by marine fishes in their FIG. 97. Hydrachna geograp/iica, an Arachnid parasite. Enlarged. FIG. 98. Lernacera cyprinacea, a Crustacean parasite. Adult and free- swimming larva. Enlarged. FIG. 99. Lernitcera cyprinacea, attached to the gill of a young Large-mouthed Black Bass. Slightly enlarged. spawning migrations. One form, Lerneecera cyprinacea^ Figs 98 and 99, occurs in freshwater and is a frequent parasite on fishes. It attaches itself by peculiar sucker-tentacles to the gills, fins and surface, and is a very fre- quent parasite on river and pond fishes, of such size as to be easily seen. / Argulid^;. These Copppods are known as Carp-lice, though they have almost all the freshwater fishes and amphibia as hosts. Of the three genera Argulus, Chonopeltis and Dolops, 42 species have been recognized, 152 AILMENTS AND DISEASES mostly of the first-named genus; of which some are marine and others freshwater forms. Those on migratory fishes are able to change with their hosts from salt to freshwater and the reverse. They are wholly external parasites, either in the gills or on the surface, and frequently change their host, though each species prefers a certain genus or closely related kinds, to which it is usually confined. They have a flat rounded carapace, notched on either side and bluntly projecting in the centre, nearly trans- parent, and elegantly marked in colors; smooth above and armed below with spines to attach themselves on the surface of their hosts, to which they also cling by anterior maxillipeds which are modified into sucking discs, and by clasping posterior legs or maxillipeds. They can swim freely and the males frequently abandon their hosts in the breeding season, as do also the larger females, at times, as unlike other copopods, the hun- dreds of eggs are not carried in sacs but are fastened in rows on objects on the bottom. As their food is the blood of their host, extracted through the sucking discs, they are destructive parasites which become serious menaces, especially in the confines of the aquarium, where they are prevented from changing to a number of fishes. They are of frequent occurrence on both pond- raised and imported goldfishes, usually easy of detection by their size and shape. FIG. loo. Arguluz catostomi, a Crustacean . " _ . _ parasite. Enlarged ventral and dorsal views, and 1 he general American freshwater form is Argulus catostomi^ Fig. too. Other com- mon Crustacean parasites on the gills and surface of freshwater fishes are Achtheres lacx, A. per c arum, Ergasilus fundu/i, Lern^eopoda fontinalis, L. siscowet, L. coregoni, L. porno tidis, Lamproglena pulchella; and Lepeophtheirus salmonis on Salmon in freshwater. Insecta or Insect Parasites. This group includes the Lice, Fleas, and other insect tormentors. As they do not affect fishes and amphibia they will not be further mentioned, though many of the aquatic insects and their larvae could be included in this group. They are else- where mentioned and described. Protozoa or Protozoan Parasites. This group embraces the lowest forms of the animal kingdom; organisms possessing but a single cell or colonies of unicellular beings. They are divided into 4 sections, 4 classes and 21 orders, many of the 38 genera of which are for the most part entozoal, but some are ectozoal parasites. The sections of interest to the fish-culturist are the Bacterid*?, Sporozoa and Infusoria. Bacterids. This section of the Protozoa includes orders which are both saprophytic and parasitic, potent factors in the causation ot '53 AILMENTS AND DISEASES diseases of fishes. They have not received much attention from Bacteri- ologists and but few have been identified. Lymphosporidium trutt'i#-i? ; ' \''## ** filaments, and infest the gills, blood, muscles, *•**«$ —••■■-■ ' a - . . , c ii t*i • • FIG. ioi. Lymp/iosboridium trutta, a skin and surface generally. I his micrococcus Bacterian pa ^ \ Enlargement. is USLiallv present in Cases of AutOtOxine of -■ Greatly enlarged Blood corpuscles J i and Bacteria. aquarium fishes. Healthy fishes succumb to the bacteria in a few days when inoculated beneath the skin and after a longer time by mixing cultures with their food. It is to be hoped that future investigations will familiarize the fish-culturist with many other of these bacterial causes of fish diseases, and with methods for their destruc- tion. Sporozoa. This section of the Protozoa includes orders which contain many parasitic genera. The orders of the Cytosporidia are the Gregarinida, Coccidiida, Ha-mosporidiida and Gymnosporidiida. The orders of Myxosporidia are the Ph3, 104 and 104A, are entirely parasitic and in the majority of cases live upon fishes. Dr. R. R. Gurly listed 102 hosts, fishes and other aquatic fauna, inhabited by them, either encysted beneath the skin, on the surface of the head and fins, or in the gills, mouth, eyes, gullet, air bladder, heart, liver, spleen, stomach, in- testines and almost every other part of the body. The effect of their presence is a breaking up or the parts, which undergo a vitreous degeneration, the growth of tumors and postules and ultimately the death of the host. m :■■-■ 111./ e »IH . . ■ FIG. 103. Myxobolus cyprini, a Spora- xoan parasite, encysted in the Kidneys of a Carp. 1. Enlarged 2. Natural size of cysts. FIG. 104. Myxobo/us c'llipsoides, a Sporozoan parasite. Greatly enlarged. 12 1 . Cyst in the tissues of the Air-bhdder of a Tench. 2. Psorospores liberated from the cyst, highly magnified. They are usually amceba-like microscopic organisms, which reproduce with- in or without the cyst or tissue cavity with those species which inhabit the surface; and constantly within the cyst with those which inhabit the cavities of the hollow organs of their hosts. Mention will only be made of those Myxosporidre of the orders Ph 3 >• o v c -o ~ « ° o c -a re u c o T3 re 3 o 1 3 a > _C ° 2 .S -H "" re T3 C re So 3 ^ t_ a w £ -o re o 3 u O o o t ° 3 z o s o c ClI O CO w 3 3 C/5 o > 3 >^ o 3 -T3 « U o to *^ aj re to JD u o 3 w "So o 3 "C O t) _3 3 Eh"" W _Q I Goldfish X X 7 Carp X XX X X X X 6 Tench X XX X X X 5 Sunfish X XX X X 4 Stickleback XX XX 4 Minnow X X XX 3 Perch X XX 4 Pike-perch XX X X 2 Pike X X 4 i Chub-sucker Mullet X X X X X 2 I Gudgeon Barbel Eel X X X X 2 Catfish XX 2 Frog X X 2 I I I Toad Crayfish Prawn Shrimp X X X X X Infusoria. This section of the Protozoa includes orders which con- tain many parasitic genera. The countless host of Infusoria is divided into 3 classes, 13 orders and 306 genera; of which 286 recognized species occur in rivers and other freshwater, 76 species in pond water, 15 in marsh water, 4 in ditch water, 13 in bogs, 17 in standing and stagnant water, and 1 in spring water; while 80 species occur on or among aquatic plants, 25 in and on entomostraca, 16 in and on frogs, toads and salamanders, 14 in molluscs, 5 in and on polyps and sponges, 4 in earthworms and tubifex, 18 in aquatic insects, and 4 are parasitic in and on fishes. These are the following: — Ichthyophthiriid^.. These infusoria are probably the most frequent and general forms of freshwater fish parasites. Small raised white spots de- velop on the skin, which increase to larger blotches, spread over the sides, head and fins, until the fish assumes the appearance of being dotted with white and covered with slime. These extend to the mouth and oesophagus and enter the gills, when the fish wastes away from loss of appetite, difficulty .56 AILMENTS AND DISEASES in breathing and the sloughing away of the skin. The following are the recognized most common freshwater species likely to be encountered by the aquariist. Ichthyophthirius MULTIFILHS. This infusorian, Figs. 105 and 106, first forms round milky spots on the skin, fins, eyes and gills of freshwater fishes. A microscope examination will reveal that each spot is caused by FIG. 105. Ichthyophthirius multifilin, an Infusorian parasite. Greatly enlarged. 1 . Ciliated spore. 1. Segmentation upon encystment. -.. Adult infusorian. FIG. 106. Head of a Cattish affected with Ichthyophthirius multifiliis. the presence ot a ciliated infusorian, the epidermis of the fish forming a considerable protuberance over the parasite. Sometimes two or three infusoria inhabit the same cyst, the form of the younger differing from that of the grown individuals. The fishes soon appear completely ema- ciated, the skin becomes thickened where the parasite is encysted, a scum forms on the surface and deaths occur in ten days to two weeks. Pantotrichum lagenula (U. lagenula.) This infusorian, Fig. 107, is parasitic on the skin and in the gills of freshwater fishes and produces the "Spot-disease" or "Pox," by living in the pulp cavity of the scales and absorbing their con- tents, pigment cells, etc., producing colorless patches on the skin. These spots first appear as slimv excrescences, later assume a funguslike appearance, and finallv cause the death of the fish bv emaciation and destruction of the tissues. The infusorian has an oval body with a sucking disc and swimming appen- dage, and the cuticle is covered with very fine evenly-developed cilia. Trachelocercid/k. Of these infusoria the most frequently occur- ring freshwater species, is theciliate Holotricha,//. mystacca y F\g. 108, a more or less elongated or flask-shaped infusorian, entirely covered with cilia; with delicate flexible cuticle and the anterior part of the body at times FIG. IO". Pantotrichum lagenula, { Urotricha lagenu/a,)an Infusorian parasite. Greatly enlarged. Dorsal and lateral views. 157 AILMENTS AND DISEASES FIG. 108. Holotrichus mystacca, an inrusorian parasite. Greatlv enlarged. FIG. 109. Chromatophagus parasiticus, an Infusorian parasite. Greatly enlarged. extended like a porboscis. It is most frequently observed on fishes kept under unsanitary conditions or which have become exhausted from fright, trans- shipment or other disturbing causes. The following are nearly related forms. Chrom atoph agus parasiticus. On the bodies of freshwater fishes, very distinct milky-white spots develop, caused by these large infusoria lodg- ing on, or in, the epidermis, which show a distinct rotating motion between the epidermic cells, Fig 109. These parasites are usually single, but some- times two or three are imbedded close together. Their shape is variable but most often oval with the longer diameter 0.615 mm. and the shorter 0.408 mm. The body is enclosed in a thin elastic cuticle covered with fine cilia, the layer below finely granular, filled with a large number of contractile vacuoles of different size. They have a proboscis-like sucking tube. The presence of these parasites is manifested by the formation of cysts on the surface of the fishes, which enlarge until the skin and head are covered by funguslike postules in which the boring infusoria are encysted. Death results from exhaustion and the ravages produced by the parasites. A similar infusorian has been found in the blinded eye of a Telescope goldfish. Tetromitus nitschei. This infusorian, Fig. 110, previously re- cognized as Contia necarix, is supposed to have only the Japanese Fringetail goldfish as host, but a very similar species, Bodo necator, is very destructive to young trout in Europe, and the described form is probably a Japanese species of the same genus. This minute organism attaches itself to the surface and under the scales in vast numbers, often hundreds in a space as large as the head of a pin. Its presence is manifested by excessive mucous coating, red spots and ulcers. In the free-swimming stage it has a flattened appearance with cilia at one side by means of which it moves through the water until it comes in contact with its future host. When not checked this parasite may become so numerous fig. ho. Tetromitus . . . nitschei, (Contia necarix) as to cause the destruction ot all the fishes in an aquarium. an infusorian parasite. None of the other mentioned orders of Infusoria are parasitic on fishes but a considerable number occur with other lower forms of aquatic fauna. AILMENTS AND DISEASES Rotifer a or Parasitic Rotifers. Three genera of Rotifera, Al- bertia^ Balatro and Dictyophora are parasitic on the freshwater fauna. Some of the already described forms must not be mistaken for this group, whose occurrence on the Cyprinidae is not common. Many parasites are design- ated as "Rotifers" by the flsh-culturists,but belong to much lower orders, or are larval forms differing in appearance from the adults. Prevention of Parasitic Diseases. The best preventive measures against parasites in the aquarium are care in not introducing them upon fishes and plants and guarding against their spreading by constant vigilance. A careful examination of everv newly acquired fish should be made; the appearance of the surface and gills, the condition of the fins and the manner in which they are carried, the behavior of the fish and its general condition noted. Newly acquired fishes should be quarantined at least a week and aquatic plants inspected and carefully cleaned before either are put into the aquarium. A microscope examination of anything suspicious is also advisable. Infected fishes should be placed in the most salubrious surroundings, with a plentiful plant growth, abundant aeration, and nutritive food given. An already mentioned sometimes effective remedy is to place the af- fected fishes, or any subjected to contagion, in water taken from neglected out-of-doors tanks which has become very green with algae and other low- forms of plant and animal life. This is worth a trial as beneficial results often follow; but if the afflicted fishes are not of value, and their disease does not yield to the remedies before and hereafter mentioned, their destruc- tion is advised. The most rigorous sanitary regulations are required in the infected aquaria or tanks, to destroy every trace of parasites. Parasiticides. An absolute means of destroying fish parasites has not yet been found, though acid and alkaline substances have proven beneficial and have effected cures. They destroy the free-swimming parasites but have not been as successful with those burrowing in the skin or in the gills. Solutions which would destroy these are oftentimes fatal to the fishes prior to exterminating the parasites. German ichthyological authorities recom- mend the following remedies, all of which require close attention in their application: Two grams of salicylate of soda are to be dissolved in one litre of warm water and permitted to cool. Two vessels, holding about three gallons each, are required; one filled with well-aerated water, of the same temperature as that to which the fish has been accustomed, the other con- taining i i/2 gallons of the same water. These should be prepared early in the morning and the fish introduced into the partly filled one, after which small even quantities of the solution are to be added at frequent 159 AILMENTS AND DISEASES intervals until by evening all has been introduced. After about two-thirds of the solution has been added, careful attention must be given to the fish, and if its condition is weak and the indications are that it would be endangered by a stronger bath, it should be removed to the second vessel, the water of which has been aerated by frequently dipping out and pouring back. It is necessary to leave the fish in the solution as long as endurable without complete exhaustion indicated by excessive restlessness and later by partly or completely turning on its side. Should the fish not recover at once in the second vessel, it must be kept in motion by gently stirring the water. Picric acid has also been found to be beneficial. A one-percent, solution of this poisonous acid is made in hot water. The fish is placed in well-aerated water to which small quantities of the solution are added, until toTmt to tttuo part of the acid is present in the water, if the fish can endure this amount, and then, after a few minutes, water of the same temperature is added at intervals until a very considerable dilution has taken place, when the fish should be removed to well-aerated water. This may be repeated after a few days, the fish to remain in the weakened bath several hours, if possible. Chlorate of potassium is used in the same manner, but the amount present in the water should not exceed i in iooo. All three of these remedies are certain to destroy the higher forms of surface parasites, and usually those encysted on the fish. American breeders have successfully applied the following remedies, all of which are to be recommended: — Permanganate of potassium solutions are powerful disinfectants and frequently used specifics, but are not always efficient. They produce an objectionable discoloration of the water and when sufficiently strong to destroy the parasites cannot be endured by the fishes. The best applica- tion is by the use of a separate vessel, and covering the mouth and gills of the fish with a wet cloth agitating the body in a strong solution for a few minutes, then placing the fish into water to wash off the potassium before returning it to the hospital jar. Bichloride of mercury has been found to be beneficial when applied in the same manner, also a weak solution of formalin; a tablet of the former in a pint of water and a 10 percent, solution of the latter. Salt is a gener- ally applied and safe remedy, and should be used as previously mentioned, a strong solution kept from the gills, and a weaker one by placing the fish into it for one or more davs. External applications of boracic acid in water have proven effectual for surface parasites, and should be frequently applied with a brush or a pledget of cotton. Very satisfactory results have been obtained with a 50 percent, solution of peroxide of hydrogen in water. The fish is grasped 160 AILMENTS AND DISEASES by the head, to close the opercular and mouth, and the rest ot the bodv immersed for rive seconds, the treatment to be repeated at intervals of one day. All newly acquired fishes should be so treated before introduction into an established aquarium. No ill results follow and salutary effects are certain. A recent highly recommended remedy is the Antigyrooactyi.in, of Paul Nitsche, for the extirpation of surface parasites on fishes, especially those of the aquarium. The fishes should be well fed about two hours before treatment and receive no food three hours thereafter. The treat- ment is to be applied three succeeding days. The fish is to be taken by the head and gently passed backward and forward through the Antigyro- dactylin for \V 2 to 1 3^ minutes, not longer. Then it should be placed in a vessel containing well-aerated water, that the parasites may drop off and sink to the bottom. After five minutes it should be transferred to a second similar vessel, and then, after expiration of another five minutes, to a third large shallow-water vessel containing just sufficient water to enable the fish to swim. This water should be changed daily and the vessel scoured. It is advisable to have the water of each vessel one or two degrees colder than the preceding, on account of its effect on the parasites, as it will aid in their leaving the fish. If the fishes show indications of exhaustion after the bath, they should be kept in motion for some time with a light wooden rod. A litre of Antigyrodactylin is sufficient for the treatment of twenty fishes. Taken internally it is poisonous, but is harmless externally, even on wounds and abrasions. Vegetal Parasites and Parasitic Diseases. All animal and vege- table substances are subject to the attack of low forms of vegetal parasites, and though they are not all necessarily malignant, many of the diseases of aquatic animals and plants are directly due to the presence of these micro- organisms, which are saprophytic upon the dead and parasitic upon the living tissue. The vegetal parasites found on animal bodies belong to the class of Crvptogamia and the orders Alga? and Fungi; distinguished from each other by the presence of chlorophyll or other coloring substances in the former and their absence in the latter. Parasitic AlG/«. The aquatic forms ot this order, or those which have preserved some essential algal features, found on animals, consist ot single or branching, cylindrical or flattened filaments, which have no method of fixing themselves but are firmly held bv the crossing ot their fibres. The reproductive system consists of round or oval spores enclosed in a case or *To be obtained ot H. Lehmann & Co., Chemists, Berlin. 161 AILMENTS AND DISEASES sporangium. They subsist on the juices of their host. Other forms are parasitic upon either growing or dead and decaying plants. Parasitic Fungi. The aquatic forms of this order, the Phyco- mvcetes, found on animals and plants, consist of densely interwoven masses of cellular filaments, which terminate in or constitute the rootlike mycelium, from which hyphae and spore capsules are developed. With some species there is but a single hypha with reproductive bodies at the ends, this being the case with the more ordinary forms which affect the freshwater fauna. As fungi contain no chlorophyll they must take up and assimulate nutritive substances from other organisms and are therefore either saprophytic or parasitic. The Phycomycetes are separated into five groups or sub-orders: i,the Clytridiace*, of which a considerable number of species are parasitic upon Protozoa, Anguillula?, Rotifera, Alga? and Saprolegnia; 2, the Ancylistace*, parasitic upon Conjugate, Chlorophyceae and Anguillula?; 3, the Monoble- pharidace*, nearly all saprophytes; 4, the Peronosporace*, of which one genus, Pythium, has species parasitic on water plants and saprophytic on organic substances; and 5, the Saprolegniace*, the order of greatest interest to the fish-culturist, as of all the above, this group and the Peronosporace* are, to greater or lesser degree, aquatic at some or all stages of their existence. Most of the Peronosporace* are aquatic only at certain stages and afterwards become land forms, but the Saprolegniace3)| U33AXO - d d d UOIJEUIUJEXg 3doDSOJ0lJ\ a 30 ^- OI X u? ^ X UO||EO jsd »uiejo 00 TH i I~ a lO o O) Chlo I N B d d oi = = d ,-, , • ).;, | cm cc ,_i — oc UI SJJEJ d i-H ui T a ,^ i- " S Z Q < c UO[|EO J3d SUIEJO d as o d I- IQ c« 30 ooo'ooi CO O z o o 3 111 IIJUJ d d d n z 1 Id lil _ 35 U3 CN UO||EO . £ CO 3! o s < 55 jad suiejo o d CO oi gfl d o d d 30 !N CM CD ooo'ooi ■^ CM a o O UD CO y. u z ui aiJEj d d d ,- 71 ^ -n o H UO[[EO jad suiejo LO o X 0< < a c d h X H ooo'ooi z z III SUEJ , r 99 CO u a UOI|EO jad suiejo CM O o 1 o X h d ooo'ooi Z III S1JE.I i~ Ji X 7T X 3 X I Z IS 5 < H UOI|EO s 30 oo CN CM CNJ jad suiejo S d o d CM d CN 5 CO a >o < t: - ooo'ooi 3 o o a cic CO K Z UI SJJEJ d d d d CO IC OI z 2 g 2 UOI|EO 1 S o lO jsd suiejo c o 3 d d d < 5 c t ooo'ooi z o < < tn siji: CC 1- X < - o 5 jod suiejo tr5 CM ^ - ui "5 CM CD C ui CD m i- 30 — h « ooo'ooi a CO O UI S1JEJ e>i oi CO JC CM •o "3 -o c -a h . "5 V g £ i-J "z -1 - < z si*. i 3 3 < o a. "s ^ "o- "S* 0. CL a. a. a. s = I J B-2 H c t- 3 < — > £ 32 is I ai < c •a t ti 5 I! 5 i- oc 5 O « ^ ■a g .2 «. s o J S c 5 o. 3 > ■S o 33 Qd Q c I O o t- £^1 cr"E.-S-S •-^oc ;» o o < 5 ac ai CONDITIONS OF LIOHT, ETC. substances. So much is this the case that chemists distinguish substances as soluble or insoluble in water. Some which are not affected at ordinary temperatures dissolve in the superheated water of deep-lying strata, as is noticeable in geyser deposits; while other substances held in suspension are concentrated by evaporation and rendered insoluble by heat and pre- cipitated; for instance the deposits in a teakettle or steam boiler. When there is much vegetal or animal matter present, or when the hardness is due to salts ot magnesia or to sulphate of lime, the water is not well suited for drinking purposes; and pollutions by the waste materials ot factories and dwellings, by sewage or similar contaminations, are the cause of certain specific diseases which become epidemic; and inju- rious micro-organisms belonging to the class of fungi, alga?, bacteria and the large class of Schizomycetes, when present in drinking water, are the direct cause of typhoid and typhus fevers, diphtheria, dysentery and numer- ous other stomach and bowel complaints. To destroy these, thorough aeration is better than filtration, as most of the disease organisms are so small that mechanical filters will not remove them and their spores. Boiling is the best sterilization. Any good drinking water is all that is required for the aquarium, though soft water is natural to the Carp family. Gradual changes in tem- perature also do not affect fishes if not too long sustained or excessive; but for those which naturally inhabit cold water streams, attention must not only be given to the character of the water but also to the required tem- perature, and what may be either excessively warm or cold avoided. A constant danger in the aquarium is the fouling of the water bv the decomposition of dead animals. This is indicated by a local cloudi- ness, a greasv surface, a foul odor, and later by the behavior of the fishes, and is followed by the death ot all the inmates and the decay of the plants if the cause is not removed. This is more often due to dead scavengers than fishes. Brook and river water abundantly contain the spores of alga?, which are beneficial in clearing the water and furnish food for the inmates, but it these are excessive or objectionable, the water should be filtered or spring water used which has been left standing to acquire oxygen and so assume the character of Stillwater. In a healthv aquarium the water must be clear and colorless though a faintly yellow or green tint is not objectionable, the one due to the decomposition of chlorophyll, the other to the presence of alga\ Com- parison of condition is best made bv taking a glassful and comparing it with a similar glassful of the water of a well-conditioned aquarium or with filtered water. CONDITIONS OF LIGHT, ETC. The odor of the water is also a means of determining its condition, as when this is strong, vitiation has advanced to a dangerous degree, and to keep the inmates alive it is not only necessary to entirely refill the aquarium but it should be cleaned, the plants reset, and after a few days the water again changed. Experienced aquariists can tell the condition of the water by its taste. When the conditions are good there is no need of changing the water for long periods, as filling in what has evaporated is sufficient, or remov- ing a part of the lower depth and adding a little fresh water, from time to time, especially when the weather has became warmer. The aquarium should have a considerable change of water, more than half, when hot weather sets in, and it may be advisable to change part of the water occasionally, say once a month, if not perfectly clear. The new water also brings into the aquarium some of the mineral salts necessary for the plants and animals, which may become exhausted by longstanding. Culturists of the food fishes recognize the benefit of occasionally turbid water, as the precipitation of the particles of soil act as a disinfectant, and the mineral substances are required by the fishes to digest their food. In ponds and streams, rainstorms will supply this requirement, but at the beginning of the feeding period of the alevin, breeders of the trout and other food fishes make the water of indoor hatching basins thoroughly turbid twice a day by pouring into it a mixture of water and rich sod soil, after which the young fishes take their food with particular readiness. The breeder of the goldfish supplies the required mineral constituents by placing dishes of turf in the rearing tanks, which is especially necessary to furnish soil artificially in wooden tanks and cement basins, as otherwise the health and growth of the fishes will be impaired. Muddy water is a favorable remedy for some of the illnesses of goldfishes and is frequently used. A small piece of plaster of paris is also beneficial, as it furnishes lime to the animal inmates. Dr. W. Koch demonstrated that the addition of like quantities of nitrate of ammonia and biphosphate of potassium with a minute quantity of iron to calciferous wellwater, in which a number of water plants were placed, soon produced very green and turbid water rich in plant life consisting principally of alga^, voucheria and wolffia, when kept at a temperature of 50 to 54 F. This admixture produced conditions favor- able to the development of the ever present spores of these low plant forms, which are beneficial to the animals in the aquarium. When much animal life is present in proportion to the size of the aquarium and the plant growth is insufficient, frequent changes of water are necessary. In overstocked aquaria this must be done daily, but 176 CONDITIONS OF LIGHT, ETC. such conditions should be avoided. Frequent aeration will then also be necessary as the vitiating carbonaceous constituents combine with oxygen and form CO.,, the form in which the plants can best assimulate it, but which in excess is fatal to animal life. Oxygen is one of the best anticep- tics and for this reason some of the water should be dipped out and slowly poured back into the aquarium that it may absorb air. If the plants do not develop new shoots and leaves at all seasons, something is wrong with the water, if the light is sufficient but not excess- ive. When the roots are affected, indicated by their black appearance, the ease with which the plants are uprooted and the unsatisfactory general appearance of the leaves, the aquarium should be cleaned and refilled with clean water. One very important consideration for success is the condition of the water when the fishes are transferred from an out-of-door to an aquarium existence. At this time many of the mishaps occur, and at no other period are the fishes more likelv to contract fungus diseases. It is always better to fill the aquarium with the water in which the fishes have been kept, when this is in good condition, as they will not then be subjected to differences in temperature and composition of the water, will continue in the same con- ditions to which they have been accustomed, and not subjected to sudden changes, as they will be acclimated to household conditions in water which will gradually assume the temperature of the room. Experienced aquariists always employ this method of transfer. AERATION All animals require oxygen to maintain their existence, and have organs by which it is brought into the blood. In breathing, a part ot this oxygen is taken from the air, distributed to every part of the organ- ism and consumed in the functions of life. In exhalation and surface expulsion C0 2 or carbonic acid gas is given off, for which reason the air becomes poorer in oxygen and richer in carbon with every breath, as every ioo parts of inhaled air contains 20 parts of oxygen and approxi- mately .04 parts of carbon, and the exhaled air 16 parts of oxygen and 4.38 parts of carbonic acid gas. This would indicate a consumption ot one-fifth of the oxygen and an addition of one hundred times as much carbonic acid gas. Hence a constant breathing of normally constituted air is necessary or suffocation will result, not only from the consumption and consequent lack of oxygen but also from the poisonous effect of the ex- haled carbonic acid gas. Nature, however, has provided for the maintenance of an equilibrium by the breathing of plants which require the carbonic acid gas exhaled by •77 CONDITIONS OF LIGHT, ETC. animals, taking up the carbon and liberating the purified oxygen. What occurs in the air also takes place in the water, though it contains less free or suspended oxvgen, an average of only 2 to 3 percent, and considerably more suspended carbonic acid gas. The animals consume oxygen, give off carbonic acid gas, and the plants consume carbonic acid gas and liber- ate oxvgen. Therefore, unless oxygen is added to the water, either by plants or furnished by aeration, animal life must cease. In the properly established aquarium the plant life should be in excess, and only as much animal life present as will exist comfortably under the conditions. But as plants are only active in producing this interchange when growing, and as their growth is entirely dependent upon sufficient light, when this is not abundantly obtained artificial aeration is necessary or a frequent change of water required, surface aeration alone being insufficient. There are many methods of furnishing air to the aquarium or larger tank. The following have been given thorough trial and have proven satisfactory when arranged that the air enters in minute bubbles for ready absorption by the water. Good results may be had by either direct ad- mission of the air, or by means of a stream of water under the pressure ot a considerable elevation, through a very finely perforated nozzle fixed close to the surface of the water on the opposite side to the overflow pipe, so that the force of the water carries with it a large amount of minutely divided air. This also permits of warming or cooling the water supply by coiling the pipe in a water-tight chamber, if desired, and may be installed on a larger or smaller scale to suit the requirements. Direct aeration, without the necessity of the overflow pipe, is ar- ranged by the use of a pressure tank and bicycle pump, placed at any convenient location, and the compressed air admitted into the aquarium by a small block tin pipe buried under the pebbles. Several petcocks are necessary to hold the pressure and to check the amount of flow, and tiny pin holes blocked with pieces of porous wood will best serve to admit the air in the required minute bubbles. When properly installed, a pressure of 35 pounds in an air chamber 28 inches high and 12 inches in diameter, produced in three minutes by a bicycle foot-pump, will furnish a 50 gallon aquarium with air for two or three days. This system of aeration is in successful use with a number of aquariists in Philadelphia. Care must however be taken not to over-oxygenate the water. The simplest fountain device, when the aquarium is placed at a window and is as broad as the opening, is the following. A block tin pipe may be led under the bottom of the aquarium through the base and screened by rockwork. This should have a small stopcock at the end and a rubber hose to connect with a water can outside the window or 178 CONDITIONS OF LIGHT, ETC. screened by the window curtains; and arranged on a cord and pulley for raising to the desired height. If the pipe is closed to a very small open- ing above the water level, five gallons of water should be sufficient to cause a fine fountain play for probably an hour. The overflow may be carried out of the aquarium in the corner, and a half-inch rubber tube through the trim of the window would lead it outside, or it may be collected in a vessel under the aquarium. This device was successfully used in swamp- aquaria. Many other ingenious aerating devices have been produced, but the simplest and most efficient are those here given. SOIL FOR AQUATIC PLANTS Experts in the maintenance of the freshwater aquarium favor the use of soil in shallow pots under the pebbles into which to root the aquatic plants, the result being always satisfactory. For this purpose clean turf, directly from under the roots of lawn grass, is the best, not garden earth or potting soil. Aquatic plants rooted in turf grow with vigor and there is less like- lihood of its fermenting or decomposing, to cause disturbances in the aquarium, as may be the case with the rich potting soil, when used in con- siderable quantity. For plants required as oxygenators, the turf may be used in pots, but tor those with floating leaves in out-of-door tanks a richer compost is necessary, as both the lilies and water-poppies are rank feeders and require a large quantity of rich soil, frequently renewed. The compost prepared by gardeners for this use consists of turf and some well- rotted cow manure, a little ground bone and about a quart each of pond soil and clean sand, the whole to about fill a bushel measure. This should be packed about the roots of the lilies and poppies, covered with clean turf and a thin layer of pebbles and set into pails of water for a few days, that it may ''set" and expel the generating gases before introduction into the tanks. Water-poppies, water-clover and the potamogetons will thrive in the aquarium in turf, but experience has taught the aquariist that Sagittaria nutans and Anacharis canadensis gigantea, the best oxygenators, will grow- more vigorously when set directly into the pebbles and sand; for when the roots do not have much nutrition they serve principally to anchor the plants and consume the humus. The leaf blades will perform the func- tions of roots, grow more rapidlv and assume a finer pale-green color. The plants are less likely to develop blossoms and seeds and will not as soon exhaust themselves or deteriorate, the propagation of Sagittaria then being by rhizomes or offshoots, the desired "runners" of the aquariist. It is also advisable to remove their floating floral leaves and the flower stalk, as the plants usually die after ripening the seeds. '"9 CONDITIONS OF LIGHT, ETC. ROCKWORK FOR THE AQUARIUM Picturesque effects in the aquarium may be produced by the introduc- tion of rockwork and other natural objects. Pomice adapts itself well for this purpose and is easily worked. Odd pieces fastened together to form a grotto or rockery may have the surfaces hollowed out to contain soil and sand in which plants may be grown, or form a screen behind which brackets for small flower pots may be constructed. Tuftstone is also to be recommended, as very handsome odd pieces may be obtained and nat- ural effects produced by their tasteful arrangement. Selinite or gypsum may be introduced, as it is not only handsome in appearance but dissolv- ing slowly in the water, it furnishes lime, necessary to the molluscs and other animal life. Small pieces of plaster of paris will also serve for this purpose. Mica schist, quartz, feldspar, agate, rock crystals and other minerals are effective, or water-worn stones to which aquatic plants are attached may be introduced, but all other objects not natural to a water garden are in questionable taste. All objects should be clean, and soaked for some time in water before they are put into the aquarium. CHAPTER IX. The Aquatic Plants of Freshwater AQUATIC PLANTS A number of generally procurable aquatic plants thrive at all seasons under the unnatural conditions of the household aquarium, and not only add to its beauty by their graceful forms and fine colors but also fulfill the imperative requirement of properly aerating or oxygenating the water, whereby supplying to the animal inmates the air necessary to their exist- ence. These plants are sought by the aquariist, and, as they belong to different genera, they^will be described not in their botanical order but in the order in which they most effectually serve these purposes. Those which grow rapidly and for the greater part of the year have their foliage submerged, taking the required carbon and nitrogen trom the soil and water, also liberate the greatest amount of oxygen to remain in available form in the water. Kxperiment has proven that the ribbon-leaved Sagittarias are in every way the best aquarium plants, with Cabomba Giant Anacharis and Vallisneria next following, all hardy and easily pro- pagated; while in further order of their utility, satisfactory growth and endurance are Myriophyllum, Nitella and Anacharis; Ludwigia, Cerato- phyllum, Hippuris, Fontinalis and Potamogeton; Callitriche, Utricularia, Proserpinaca, Heterenia and Hottonia; and finally the Lilies, Water- poppies and other aquatic and semi-aquatic plants either not entirely sub- merged or floating. The orders to which the aquarium plants belong are: — Sagittaria to the Alismacea^; Cabomba to the Nympheaceae; Vallisneria to the Yallis- neriaceae; Myriophyllum to the H alorrhagidaceae; Ludwigia to the Onagraceae; Nitella and Chara to the Characese; Anacharis to the Vallis- neriaceae; Ceratophyllum to the Ceratophyllaceae; Hippuris to the Halorrhagidaceas; Fontinalis to the Musci; Potamogeton to the Naiadaceas; Callitriche to the Callitrichaceae; Utricularia to the Lentibu- laceae; Proserpinaca to the Halorrhagidacere, and Heterania and Hottonia to the Primulacese. It may be noted that when it is the habit of an aquatic plant to carry part of its foliage above the surface of the water, better results will be ob- tained by rooting it in soil instead of in the sand or pebbles and covering the surface with a layer of pebbles; for, though many will thrive either rooted in the pebbles or floating unattached, as they derive nearly all ot their nourishment from the water, when set in shallow dishes with soil they are more likely to root, thrive and develop satisfactorily in the aquarium. .83 AQUATIC PLANTS OF FRESHWATER SAGITTARIA A small genus of very variable plants ot which the number of species differs with different authorities, and, though there are quite ioo specific names, Micheli has reduced them to 13 species, 4 of which are doubtful. They are widely distributed in temperate and torrid regions, and in shallow water are effective foliage plants, most of which have the arrowshaped leaves from which the name is derived, with small buttercuplike flowers in successive whorls on an erect scape. They are perennials of easy culture, many propagating both bv runners and seeds, grow on the muddy bottoms of shallow streams, ponds and lakes, raising their leaves above the water. In the beds of rapid streams, when exposed to a vigorous current, the leaf blades are almost entirely changed to the form of a spade, and not infrequently all traces of lamina are absent and the leaf is lengthened to form a limp, flat, pale-green ribbon much resem- bling Vallisneria. This is characteristic of S. nutans, S.pusilla and S. sinensis or S. gigantea, which are grown in aquaria and sucessfully in shaded ponds in summer. Sagittaria natans (Mul.) or Floating or Ribbon Arrowhead, Fig. 112, is a variety of S. pusilla and is the best of all aquarium plants, generally to be had of dealers in aquatics, who propagate it in tanks and aquaria. It originates in a tuft on the bottom of the water and spreads by runners usually in the direc- tion of the strongest light. The Fig. 112 clear-green linear leaves are Floating Arrowhead, j 1 . .1 1 Sagittaria natans, with rhizoid, blossom, rruit, details of leaf nerved their entire length and and a floral leaf. Reduced one-third. 184 AQUATIC PLANTS OF FRESHWATER exhibit clearly veined and distinctly outlined cellular structure, grow- to and float immediately below or on the surface of the water, and in midsummer develop lanceolate emersed and floating floral leaves resembling those of other species of the Arrowheads. The small, incon- spicious white flowers have three petals with yellow centres and are devel- oped in 1 to 4 whorls about a long floating scape. These extend above the surface until the flowers are fertilized, but the fruit ripens on or below the surface of the water. S. natans is an exotic which may be obtained from dealers and is in such constant demand that its extensive propagation would be a profitable industry. In replanting it is advisable to take off the partly decaying outer leaves that the younger growth may become more active. Sagittaria pusilla (Nutt.) or Slender or Subulate Arrowhead is similar to S. natans but a more slender-leaved plant, sometimes but a few inches high, with narrow linear submerged and lanceolate floating leaves, and the flowers in one whorl x / 2 to 3^ inches across, with broad filaments. Grows from New York to Alabama along the coast line and may be had of dealers. Sagittaria sagitt, has larger, more acutely spatulate leaves than the foregoing, and is a very abundant form in still water along the Atlantic coast line. The seed car- pels are either ovate or round in form. It is known to aquariists as Wild Ludwigia, and the sometimes crisped leaves somewhat resemble the cultivated L. mulerttii. Ludwigia mulerttii, or Mulertt's Ludwigia, Fig. 120, is said to be a South American species, introduced as an aquarium plant by Mr. Hugo Mulertt. The leaves are more lance-oblong than L. palustris and the FIG. 119. Cylindric-fruited Ludvvig Ludivigia glandulosa. Reduced one-third. FIG. 120. Mulertt's Ludwigia, Ludwigia mulerttii. Reduced one third. brilliant coloring more permanent. The flowers are yellow. This plant has become widely distributed among growers ot aquatic plants and is highly prized for its fine appearance and graceful habit in the aquarium. It is easily propagated from cuttings. Ludwigia alternij olia (Linn.) or Alternate-leaved Ludwigia, is an erect semi-aquatic shrub and a fine foliage plant which grows to a height of 2 to '93 AQUATIC PLANTS OF FRESHWATER 3 feet and bears yellow flowers V 2 to 3/^ inch across, and alternate lance- olate entire or finely toothed leaves. Native to bogs in the Eastern and Middle States. Ludwigia grows luxuriantly in ponds and basins and survives in the aquarium. It should be planted in shallow pots with sod soil or pond mud covered with pebbles. Its fine foliage and handsome colors make it a most desirable aquarium plant. NITELLA AND CHARA These dainty aquatics, belong to the order of the Characeas and are popularly known as Stoneworts. They are good oxygenators and beautiful aquarium plants but the more delicate of them should not be grown in the rearing tanks, as the young fishes may become entangled in their dense growth of hairlike stems and leaves. The generally distributed species are: — Nitella flexilis, N. gracilis, N. tenuissima, Char a coronata, C. gymnopus and C. crinita. Fig. 121. Nitella flexilis (Ag.) or Flexible Nitella grows to a length of 20 to 30 inches in deep water and has a very slender erect and flexible stem with heavy and long threadlike node-bearing leaflets either single or divided into two abruptly pointed segments. The spores or fruitlets are formed in the middle of the branching leaves. Common in streams and still water. Nitella gracilis (Sm.) or Slender Nitella, Fig. 122, is more hairlike than the above with the nodes more widely separated and the leaflets some- what shorter. The spores are formed in the axils of the branching leaves. Usually to be found in ponds and streams. Morris Pond and Schuylkill River. A desirable aquarium plant. Nitella tenuissima (Desv.) or Clustered Nitella has very slender 2 to 6 inch long spar- ingly branched stems and leaves in close verticils, three or four times divided, with the first segment the longer. Native in New York, New Jersey, Rhode Island and Michigan. Char a coronata (Ziz.) or Crowned Chara, is a large Ceratophyllum-like aquatic, growing to 18 FIG. 121 . Characex. Reduced one-third. 1 . Chara coronata. 2. Nitella flexilis. 3. Chara gymnopus. 4. Chara crinita. 5. Nitella tenuissima. 6. Nitella gracilis. Reduced one-third. I94 AQUATIC PLANTS OF FRESHWATER and 20 inches in length, having a tufted stem from a single root. The jointed capillary leaves are often 1 y 2 to 2 inches long and form in whorls of 8 to II. Quite common throughout America on a sandy soil in shallow ponds and streams. This plant is sometimes mistaken for Cerato- phyllum, but does not form the thick branch- ing clusters of the latter plant. Chara gymnopus (A. Br.) or Elegant Chara is a slender hairy-stemmed plant growing to a length of 2 feet in deep water and having the verticils of many-celled capillary leaves sur- rounded by a whorl of stipules. Each leaf usually bears three spores. This beautiful species is not uncommon, new localities coming constantly into notice. Chara crinita (Wallr.) or Crumpled Chara somewhat resembles N. tenuis sima and has rigid and erect stems and densely clustered, fascicled hairlike leaves. The tiny spores form in the axils of the leaves. Usually grows to a height of 6 to 12 inches. It occurs more usually in brackish water in the Eastern States, notably in Massachusetts and New York. Nitella gracilis is a fine aquarium plant but thrives so abundantly that it forms dense masses impenetrable to fishes and snails. When introduced, it should be kept down by frequently removing the excess growth. It is a good oxygenator, as are all the vigorously growing submerged aquatics. The Charas do not grow as well in the aquarium as the Nitellas. No other aquatics so plainly show the activity of plants in liberating oxygen as this group, particularly Nitella. When the growth is dense in strong sunlight, the oxygen bubbles form on the stems and leaves like suspended clusters of tiny pearls or slender strings of transparent glass beads; and when undisturbed, the plants appear as though hung with jewels. It has been observed that the Paradise-fish seems to prefer this oxvgen to breathing the air and will occupy itself for hours in taking them into the mouth for gill absorption. Together with the Nitellas, Confervas and other large Algae are usually introduced into the aquarium, the principal of these being the so- called Frog-spittle, Nostocs and Zygnemae, hereafter more fully described. These seem rather to be associated with the Characeae than parasitic, and FIG. 122. Slender Nitella, Nitella gracilis, attached to a water soaked twig. Reduced one-third. •95 AQUATIC PLANTS OF FRESHWATER will develop even after the larger plants have been cleaned before intro- duction into the aquarium. The dense growth probably acts as a shelter for these film-like algae or more secure anchors for their development. ANACHARIS This mosslike aquatic plant is variously known to botanists as Anacharis, Philotria or Elodea and commonly as Waterweed, Ditchmoss, Water Thyme, Water Pest and in the British Isles as Babington's Curse. There are 4 or 5 very similar American species which bloom from May to August, but are also propagated by a plentiful production of off- shoots which, attached or separate, rooted or floating, grow with amazing rapidity inany ditch ( stream or pond throughout the United States and North America except the extreme north. It is a slender wholly submerged plant with fragile jointed and branching stem, 4 inches to 3 feet long, dependent upon the depth of water, so weak that it mats together and decays when the water is withdrawn. The male and female flowers are borne on separate plants. The pistil- late flowers are raised to the surface by their long calyx tubes and the minute staminate flowers break off" and rise to the surface to shed their pollen. The fruit ripens below the surface of the water. The plant also forms heavy buds in the Fall, which drop to the bottom and develop in the following Spring. It is a verit- able pest, as it chokes up canals and waterways. Anacharis canadensis (Mich.) A . alsinastrum / r> 1 \ i^ - 1 11 FIG. 123. Ditchmoss or Anacharis, (Bab.), iMg. 123, IS the Species mOSt generally Anacharis canadensis; also a modified to be found and has a weak jointed stem with formandl «- s - Redu « d one - four < h - the leaves in whorls of 4's to 8's or the lower leaves opposite, linear and minutely toothed. The white pistillate flowers develop on calyx tubes from 2 to 12 inches long. The Common Anacharis A. canadensis, Fig. 123, thrives fairly well in the aquarium, is a good oxygenator, but is so weak and fragile that it will easily break into sections. It should be planted in the sand or pebbles in groups of 4 to 10 stalks. Freshwater fishes and goldfishes feed upon the leaves and in the aquarium frequently entirely destroy the plant. When found in cold water streams the plants are more robust and the leaves 1 96 AQUATIC PLANTS OF I-RF.SHWATKR broader, fuller and more pointed than those of quiet or stagnant water, which probably caused it to be considered a different species. It is a very pretty aquarium plant but difficult to maintain in satisfactory condi- tion, except with such fishes as will not molest it. Anacharis canadensis gigantea or Elodea canadensis gigantea (Hort.) Fig. i 24, is a cultivated species derived from A . canadensis^ the most gen- erally distributed native form. It has a thick jointed stem and leaves 1 to 1 y 2 inches long, in whorls of 4 to 8, with a dense cluster of the long slender leaves at the ends of the stalks. It usually growswithout much branch- ing. In general appearance it considerably resembles Hippuris and is an attrac- tive aquarium plant which grows to a length of 3 to 4 feet below and on the sur- face of the water. Its color is a delicate greyish-green, the younger growth usually a bright green, sometimes marked with white. Less fragile than A. canadensis^ it is a good oxygenator, of most rapid growth, which thrives with or without roots, set directly in the FIG. 124 Giant Anacharis, Anacharis canandensis gigantea, Hort. pebbles OV Sand OT in Small Reduced one-third. • 1 -i » * i ith soil. May be pots Wll had of dealers in aquatic plants. In small aquaria, intended for the pro- pagation of aquarium snails, it is preferable to most of the other aquatic plants. Together with Cabomba it is easiest to be obtained, and is a most satisfactory plant for the novice in aquarium study. CERATOPHYLLUM This generally distributed aquatic weed, commonly known as Horn- wort, is free-suspended in every stage of development and is shitted in position by every current, though the submerged species of this genus mostly occur in slow streams and still water. Absorption is carried on by •9: AQUATIC PLANTS OF FRESHWATER the epidermal cells of the foliage leaves and not by roots, though the lower leaves may assume a rootlike character. The Hornworts have weak and slender widely-branching and floating stems with verticulate leaves, which appear in thick clusters on the younger growth and branches. It is not a desirable aquarium plant as it is too fragile and requires careful attention, may decay in a brief period, contaminate the water, and cause the death of the fishes. Several species have been proposed, based on the spurs, spines or wings of the fruit but none of these distinctions are of value. Ceratophyllum demersum (Gray), or Common Hornwort, Fig. 125, has long or short slender submerged floating stems, dependent upon the depth of the water, as it is characteristic of the plant to form thick mats immediately below the surface. The linear 1 to 3 times divided and forked leaves grow in verticils of 5's to 12's on a weak and fragile stem. The flowers are insignificant, either white or yellowish in color,of which the male and female are distinct. The former consists of about 15 sessile anthers and the latter of a small one-seeded ovary, but both surrounded by a whorl of very small bracts, while the fruit is oval with either a straight and spinelike beak, smooth or with a basal spur, or tubercular with narrow winglike spiny lower margin. Grows freely in ponds and slow streams throughout North America except in the extreme North. European authorities mention two other species, C. submersum and C. platyacanthum^ not gener- ally known in the United States. They are probably natural variants of C. demursum the universally distributed species. Podostemon ceratophyllum (Linn.) is another aquatic bearing the name Cerato- phyllum. It is popularly known as River Weed or Threadfoot, and is a dark green 1 • ry 1 r ^ L J 1 FIG. 12?. Hornwort, Ceratophvllum rather stiff plant, firmly attached to the dtmcrsum , who ri«i leaf, blossom's and StOneS in running Streams. The densely enlarged seed carpel. Reduced one-third. tufted leaves are narrowly linear and sheathed at the base, but split above into filiform segments. It resembles C. demersum but is coarser and rougher in appearance. The white flowers are ^ to %, inch broad, spreading from the spathes; and the oblong-oval capsules are borne on a AQUATIC PLANTS OF FRESHWATER scape of about their own length, with recurved stigmas. Only one species is known in the United States, which occurs in shallow streams from Massachusetts to Northern New York, Ontario and Minnesota to Georgia, Alabama and Kentucky. Flowers July and August. A few stalks of Ceratophyllum make a fine appearance in the aquarium, as the growth there developed is more delicate, brighter green and finer in appearance than that of the ditch, pond or stream. HIPPURIS This genus consists of a small group of aquatic herbs with simple erect stems and verticillate entire leaves, small axillary flowers and a one- celled, one-seeded fruit. There are three known species native to north temperate and lower arctic regions and southern South America. Hippuris vulgaris (Linn.) or Bottle Brush, Joint-weed, Mare's tail, etc., Fig 126, has a slender stem and linear or lanceolate acute leaves in crowned whorls or verticils. The flowers have stamens with a short thick filament, comparatively large two- celled anthers and ovoid seeds hollow in the interior. The plant is native to swamps and bogs in Labrador and Greenland to Alaska; south to Maine along the shore of Lake Superior, in the Rocky Mountains to New Mexico and along the Pacific Coast. Hippuris tetraphyllum (Linn.) H. maritema (Hell.)or Four-leaved Mare's tail, is a smallerspecies with obovate or oblanceolate entire leaves in verticils of 4's and 6's at the base of the stem. Native to Labrador and Canada to the United States border and in Alaska. Hippuris has the character of Anacharis cana- densis, but is larger, stiffer and more erect, growing 12 to ic inches above the water. It largelv takes FIG. 126. Mare's Tail, J . . J Hippuru ■, -vulgaris, and enlarged the place of Anacharis in northern waters and was fruit. Reduced one-half. . , ,• i iv/fjJl C .. 1 .,„-;.,.-.-. introduced into the Middle States by aquarium fanciers in i 898, but has recently been superseded by A. canadensis gigantea. FONTINALIS ■ This genus of aquatic moss contains a quite considerable number of universally distributed freshwater species, two or three of which thrive in the aquarium. Ten species are recognized as native to the United States and 199 AQUATIC PLANTS OF FRESHWATER of these F. antipyrotica, F. gigantea and F. gracilis are most easily obtained and best serve for aquarium purposes. The young foliage has a fine green color but changes to a dusky brown with age. A few sprigs, attached to the stone upon which they grew or in soil may be introduced it the aquarium is exposed to a good light. Fontinalis antipyretica (Linn.) or Willowmoss, Watermoss, Fig. 127 1 , has broad ovate and acuminate entire sharply plicate leaves with the borders reflexed on the side towards the base, in two or three rows, more or less imbricated and sharply keeled. The bracts are also closely imbricated and the capsules ovate-oblong with a conical lid and bright coral-red per- istome or cap. The plant adheres to rocks, submerged wood and stones in rivers and cold-water streams, and flowers in summer. Its name is in allusion to the use for which it is often applied, that of filling in between chimneys and walls to exclude the air and prevent the spread of fire. It is a fairly good oxygenator. Fontinalis gracilis (Schp.) Fig. 127 2 is a generally distributed species very much more slender and mosslike than the above, with divided stems considerably denuded of leaves at the base. The tiny leaves are narrow and often split to the keel, the carpels smaller and usually contracted below the mouth. Common to most ponds, rivers and often rapid streams, some- times associated with the above. Fontinalis gigantea (Sull.) is a very robust Willowmoss, less branched than the above with wide leaves, less acute or curved at the base, of a coppery brown color, having small capsules and less perfect peristomes. Found attached to stones and stumps by the side of the water, but less generally distributed than the two above species, and in more southern latitudes. There are a number of other varieties of the Watermosses which are more rare and not so often met with. Their purpose in the aquarium is more for their singular and interesting appearance than special utility. FIG. 127. Willowmoss. I. Fontinalis antipyratica with enlarged leaf and fruit carpel. z. Fontinalis gracilis. Reduced one-third. AQUATIC PLANTS OF FRESHWATER POTAMOGETON About 40 species and sub-species of Potamogeton, also known as Channel, Pond or Riverweed, the latter from the (ireek significance of the botanical name, are native of North America. They are all weedy plants which attach themselves to the bottom of ponds, shallow lakes, streams and canals and grow so luxuriantly as to choke the waterways. They are also known as Stink-grass on account of the rank fetid odor of the plant when exposed to the sun on the banks or shore. In many of the species there are two kinds of leaves, the narrow submerged and the broader floating leaves, which surround the small green flowers consisting of 4 stamens and usually 4 one-ovuled ovaries. The fruit is a small nut- let containing a coiled or hooked embrio. Four species have come into slight notice in American water gardens. Potamogeton crispus (Linn.) or Curled-leaved Pondweed, Fig. 128, has a dark green stem and beautiful dark olive-green, two-ranked serrulate and crisped linear leaves with a compound midrib and the outer nerves near the margins. The ovoid fruit has a small embrio with its apex pointed directly towards the base, and the peduncle or stem recurved on the fruit. It occurs generally in fresh, brackish and salt water from Massachusetts to Pennsyl- vania and in Virginia, and flowers in August. Potamogeton lanceolata (Linn.) or Spear- leaved Channelweed or Pondweed, Fig. 128, is generally distributed in all running and stagnant waters, forming thick almost impenetrable mats that obstruct the streams; and, as it is one of the fragile species, it often occasions the stop- page ot turbines and water-wheels, especially in the late fall when it sheds its foliage. Jn this species the winter buds may be readilv recognized. The flowers appear in July and August and consist of a cluster of tiny green pedals about a thick scape and the fruit is a hard nutlet with one or sometimes two grooves on the back; the embrio forming a spiral of one and a half turns. Native in almost all parts of the United States and North America. Potamogeton natans (Linn.) or Common fig. 128. curied-ieaved Pond- Spade-leaved Floati ng Chan nelweed or Pondweed, weed, Potamogeton crispus; and _ Spear-ieaved Pondweed, Potamoge- Fig. 129, has long and almost leafless stems with ton lanceolata, with winter bud. . • ] 1 j 1 j j Reduced one-third. short narrow pointed submerged leaves, rounded AQUATIC PLANTS OF FRESHWATER at the base, and larger simple sparingly branched ovate floating leaves. The peduncles of the fruit are as thick as the stems and the nutlets are hard, pitted and with two groves on the back; the embrio forming an in- complete circlet with its apex pointed to the base. Native in canals and streams throughout North America, and flowers in July and August. Potamogeton densus (Linn.) or Close or Broad-leaved Pondweed, Fig. 129, has single or branching stems, broad olive-green submerged and float- ing leaves fitted closely to the stem and overlaying each other, having sharply defined midribs. The fruit is obvoid rounded and indistinctly three-keeled and the embrio re- curved or spiral. This is a Euro- pean species which has become naturalized in the United States. Other frequently occurring species are: — P. fluitans or Long- leaved Pondweed; P. heterophyllum or Varied-leaved Pondweed; P. perfoliatum or Perfoliate (clasping- leaved) Pondweed; P. compressus or Flat-stalked Pondweed; P. pectinatus or Fennel-leaved Pond- weed; P. lucens or Shining-leaved Pondweed; and P. gramina: or Grass-leaved Pondweed. The Potamogetons are easily grown in basins and ponds and may thrive in the Aquarium, P. densus and P. perfoliatum being especially desirable, the handsome deep olive-green leaves of the 1 ° FIG. 129. Floating Pondweed, Potamogeton nutans with former and the clear pea-Preen blossom; and Broad-leaved Pondweed, Potamogeton densus. . r 1 1 c r Reduced one-third. leaves or the latter forming a fine contrast with other aquarium plants. They should be planted in soil or pond mud in shallow pots covered with pebbles in the corners of the aquarium. They are mainly propagated by cuttings, and in nature by rhizomes and the peculiar winter buds which remain dormant in cold weather and form new plants in the spring. Botanists are at variance in naming two species of this plant; some designating C. crispus as C. lanceolata and others classing the shorter-leaved of the latter species C. crispus and AQUATIC PLANTS OF FRESHWATKR assigning the long-leaved varieties ot C. lanceolala with less crinkled leaves to C. gramirice. This is not essential to the aquariist. The author illus- trates the species as he recognizes them. It is a variable genus some- times difficult of identification. WATERCRESSES The Family of Roripa or Watercresses contain about 25 species, most abundant in the North temperate zone, of which eleven are native to North America. Of these the species generally distributed in the East- ern and Middle States are: — Roripa palustris ( Li n n . ) Nasturtium terrestre(A. Br. ) or M arsh or Yellow Watercress, an erect, branching, glabrous plant having the lower leaves petioled and the upper leaves nearly sessile, with yellow flowers and linear-oblong fruit pods. Flowers May to August. F'ound in swampy localities throughout entire North America, except the extreme north. Roripa syhestris (Linn.) N. syhestris (A. Br.) or Creeping Yellow- Watercress has a creeping stem rooting at the nodules, with ascending branches, pinnately divided and toothed leaves and yellow flowers. Found in low ground and wet places from Massachusetts to Virginia and Ohio. Roripa nasturtium (Linn.) N. officinale (A. Br.)or Watercress, Fountain- cress, the edible Watercress, has branched floating and creeping stems rooting from the nodules, with odd-pinnate, ovate leaves, and white flowers, and may be found in almost every coldwater brook of North America. Many cultivated varieties have been produced from this species. Another species is Roripa hispida, or Bristly Yellow Watercress which is more seldom met with. It grows on the borders of sluggish streams and ponds. Of these, Fountaincress and the creeping Yellow Watercress thrive fairly well submerged in the aquarium and all the species make ornate plants for the aqua-terrarium. Closely related to the cresses is another very desirable plant which thrives in the aquarium, the generally introduced Moneywort. Lysimachia nummularia (Linn.) or Moneywort, Creeping Loosestrife, also known as Creeping Jenny and Herb-twopence, is a border plant that overhangs the water and develops roots which take their sustenance from the water. It has a glabrous, creeping stem, rooting at the nodules, with opposite, broadly ovate leaves, obtuse at both ends and solitary yellow flowers. This plant thrives satisfactorily in the aquarium, either rooted in soil or in pebbles; and may be found in moist and wet places from New- foundland to New Jersey, west to Indiana; and to be had ot florists. It is a fairly good oxygenator and a fine foliage plant in the aquarium where 203 AQUATIC PLANTS OF FRESHWATER it has taken the place of Watercress. It should be introduced in loose bunches as it requires strong light to grow submerged and makes a good screen for the fishes. The dark-green, almost circular leaves with their straight stalks strive to reach the surface and give a vigorous thriving appearance to the plant, in fine contrast with the languid appearance of the usual aquatic plants in the aquarium. CALLITRICHE The Water Starwort family contains a number ot herbaceous aquatic and semi-aquatic species, with slender stems, opposite spatulate leaves and minute axillary flowers, of which the following are native American species: — Callitriche verna or C. palustris, Vernal or Spring Water-Starwort, Water Fennel; Fig. 130, C. bifida, Autumnal or Northern Water-star- wort; C. heterophyllum, Larger Water-starwort and C. austenii, Terrestial Water-starwort. They are pond or basin plants but generally will not thrive in the aquarium. Callitriche verna(Uind\.)\s probably the hardiest,from the aquariist's point of view, and is the most common and generally distributed species in cold or running water throughout the United States and Canada. It grows in the mud with elongated one-nerved spatulate submerged leaves and most peculiar floating leaves; which, though a moderate distance from each other are arranged to form a rosette, as the stalks of the lower leaves are longer than those near the apex and bring the floating leaves into clusters of 4's, 6's and 8's. The small axillary flowers reach above the surface of the water and bloom from July to September. Native or wherever introduced, it spreads so rapidly as to become a nuisance, and should not be used in lily-ponds. Water Starwort is introduced into the fig. 130. Spnng Water- a q Uar j um j n sma ll bunches, but either so or floating on stirvvort, Callatricne -verna. l ° Reduced one-third. the surface is eagerly eaten by goldfishes. UTRICULARIA The Bladderworts are divided into aquatic and marsh species, floating free or rooted in the mud. The aquatic species have finely divided leaves covered with minute bladders, the marsh species rootlets under ground and bladder-bearing leaves. There are about 150 widely distributed 204 AQUATIC PLANTS OF FRESHWATER species of which 14 occur generally in the United States and 3 only in the Southern States. Utricularia vulgaris (Linn.) or Greater Blad- derwort, Hooded Water-milfoil, Pop Weed, etc. Fig 131, occurs in ponds and brooks throughout nearly the whole of North America. The deli- cate 1 to 3 pinnately divided and much crowded floating leaves have numerous bladders, racemose yellow flowers and long recurved fruit. Flowers June to August and also propagates by winter buds. Utricularia minor (Linn.) or Lesser Bladder- wort, Fig. 131, occurs in bogs and shallow ponds from Greenland, Labrador and British Columbia south to New Jersey, Arkansas, L T tah and Cali- fornia. The floating leaves are short, much scattered, with fewer divisions and not as many bladders borne among the leaves. The flowers are pale yellow and the fruit has the peduncle reflexed. Flowers June to September in different altitudes. Utricularia biflora (Lam.) or Two-flowered Bladderwort, Fig. 132, occurs on the mar- gins of ponds in New Jersey and New York, Massa- chusetts and Rhode Island to Illinois, south to Louisiana and Texas. The leaves are finely divided with few divisions and are copiously provided with blad- ders. The flowers are yellow. Blossoms during warm weather, later in the season the farther north it occurs. Other generally distributed species are U. gibba, Humped Bladderwort; U. intermedia, Flat-leaved Bladderwort; U. clandestina, Hidden-fruited Bladder- wort; U. purpurea, Purple Bladderwort; and U. subulata, Tiny or Zigzag Bladderwort. The Bladderworts are beautiful floating aquarium FIG. 131. Greater Bladderwort, Utricularia vulgaris; and Lesser Bladderwort, Utricula ia minor. Reduced one-third. ^ plants which thrive satisfactorily indoors. Any of the fig. 132. Two-flowered Bladderwort. 'iftora. Reduced one-third. 20^ r . Bladderwor. three described species, and occasionally some of the bit AQUATIC PLANTS OF FRESHWATER others, are generally to be had and may be planted with the lower ends embedded in the sand or pebbles or loosely floating on the surface of the water. They require a strong light and grow very rapidly. Goldfishes destroy them but with. Paradise fishes or for snail culture, they form hand- some aquatic gardens. A peculiar characteristic of the Bladderworts is that they are aquatic insectivorous plants. The bladders are provided with a valvelike trap on their lower sides and when filled with water also probably contain secre- tions which attract infusoria and small crustaceans, who upon entering are entrapped and absorbed by the plant. Of some species it is reported that they will capture the tiny fry of fishes, though in these latitudes there is no species with bladders sufficiently large to serve this purpose. HOTTONIA This pretty marsh herb is commonly known as Featherfoil, Water- feather, Water or Marsh-violet and Water-yarrow. Two species are native to North America. Hottonia inflata (Ell.) or Water-feather having an entirely submerged spongy close cluster of thick and soft stems with pinnate crowded leaves in verticils and clustered at the ends and joints of the stems. An interest- ing pond plant but does not usually survive in the aquarium. H. -palustris (Ell.) the second species is more rarely met with, but in Europe is considerably cultivated as an aquarium plant. FRESHWATER ALG^E The Algae constitute one of the grand divisions of the Cryptogams or flowerless plants, embracing the sea weeds and lower water plants, the Fucas, Ulva and Confervas. The most of the Fuca and Ulva are marine forms; but in counterdistinction to Algae in general, the Confervas are an extensive section of the order of Algae, consisting of slender, often scum-like vegetation, the best known being the so-called "Frog-spittle." The simpler forms of Algae, the Nostoceae, consist only of a cell wall con- taining a colored protoplasmic substance; but in the higher forms the cells are combined into a tissue, and the forms which they assume are more varied than in any other class of plants. Some appear as strings or linear masses, globules, laminae, etc. In others, the Fucaceae, a distinct stem, branches, leaflike structures and rhizoids or rootlike structures are formed, but these have none of the characteristics of true plants and consist entirely of cellular tissue. Each season of the year, every climate, every moist spot, has its species of Algae. Some may be found in healthy condition frozen into an icicle 206 AQUATIC PLANTS OF FRESHWATER or in the heated water of a boiling spring. They are the last vestige of life in the region of perpetual snow or in the heated basin of the geyser. The numerous forms are to be found in every stagnant pool and ditch, rivulets,' springs and in all other bodies of water. In pools and ponds the most conspicuous forms are Oscillatoriae and Zygnemaciae; the former forming dense floating or attached slimy strata, having fine rays extending from the mass, of dark green, purplish or bluish-black, color. The Zygnemae are bright green filamentous masses, usually entangled among the water plants, twigs, etc. When in fruit they become dingy, yellowish, or dirty looking. Late in the season Rivulareae and Nostocs are often met with. These adhere to larger plants and floating matter and form fine fringes around the stems and edges of the leaves, or little green and brownish globules and small protuberances. Of the river Algne, the Desmids are abundant in the spring and summer months, adhering to rocks and water plants; and Chaetophora, Scytonema and Palmela are also numerous, often free but sometimes attached to objects in the water. Diatoms are also classed in the family of Algae and consist of minute silicious organisms which were formerly considered as belonging to the lowest forms of animal life. They are a higher form of Alga.' and obtain firmness by depositions of silica. Another class, the Acetabulariae, deposit carbonate of lime. The mentioned Algae and Confervae are those with which the aquariist becomes familiar, the group being too complex in classification for further description in a work of this character. The common small aquarium species are mentioned elsewhere as they have more or less parasitic character. Algae have many useful purposes in the aquarium, as they form a screen on the glass to intense light, serve as a natural food for both the fishes and the scavengers, and have beneficial medicinal properties to fishes. When the growth is of a clear green color and not so thick as to be un- sightly, it may be left undisturbed on the glass or removed only from the side through which the contents are viewed;- but when the growth, both on the glass and in the water, assumes a brown color, it is indicative ot a dead and decaying condition and it is advisable to thoroughly clean the aquarium and refill with fresh water, as the appearance ot the algae is a good indication of the water conditions. Excessive growth on the plants is injurious and thev should be cleaned to prevent suffocation or the affected leaves removed, but usually the fishes and scavengers, when not overfed, keep them sufficiently clean. It is for this purpose that gold- fishes are kept in tanks with aquatic plants by florists, to keep down both objectional plant and injurious insect life. Should the growth become so excessive as to destroy the lower leaves AQUATIC PLANTS OF FRESHWATER of the plant, they should be removed, the aquarium cleaned and new plants introduced; though this may only occur in large tanks or basins. Ex- cessive growth of some of the larger varieties, especially the Confervas, may also form such compact masses and mats that even large fishes become en- tangled and may die of suffocation. These larger algae and confervas are best removed with tweezers, the hand, or by entangling the growth about a stick. Aquatic plants taken directly from the pond, especially Myrio- phyllum and Nitella, are the usual sources of introducing these objection- able algae. The microscopic green algae are sometimes present in aquaria in such numbers as to obscure the contents; often the decomposition or their chlorophyll makes the water brown. A small quantity of a solution of permanganate of potassium in water diluted to a claret color and then added to the aquarium water, will cause their entire disappearance without injury to the animal lite. FLOATING WATER PLANTS Some of the native and tropical floating plants may be introduced into the aquarium with very pleasing effect. Of these the native species are Duckweed, Floating Pondmoss, and Crystalwort, and the more com- monly known tropical species, Salvinia, Trianea, Frog-bit, Water Lettuce, and the Water Hyacinth. DUCKWEED Lemnas or Duckweeds, Fig. 133, occur on every ditch and pool; the five most generally distributed in the United States being L. minor or Lesser Duckweed; L. perpusilla or Tiny Duckweed; L. gibba or Thick- leaved Duckweed; L. polvrhiza (Spirodela poly- r/iiza) or Greater Duckweed; and L. trisulea or Ivy-leaved Duckweed, the last two least often found in the Eastern and Middle States. They are small flowering plants having pendant roots, and grow by the extension of offshoots from the clusters; and in winter sink to the bottom when the growth of the leaves is checked by frost. L. minor has nearly round leaves of even, small size and bright green color, with usually one rootlet attached to each leaf. It is very common and during the summer almost covers the surface of ditches and other slow flowing or stagnant water. L. perpusilla has a still 208 FIG. 133. Duckweed. Reduced one third. I. Lemna minor. 2. Lemna trisulea. 3. Sbirodela polyrkiza. 4. Lemna perpusilla. AQUATIC PLANTS OF FRKSH W.ATKR smaller elong-ovate leaf and grows in closely matted clusters of dull green color. L. gibba has a flat leaf, the larger about y H inch diameter, of a bright green color, to each of which is attached a single root. L. polyrhvza has the leaves of varying outline, densely clustered and overlapping each other, of varying shades, from pea-green to light olive-green. L. trisulca is a pond variety with the serrated 3 S inch leaves of a light green color, which grow most oddly at right angles to each other. It is restricted to some few localities. All the duckweeds have tiny white flowers but during warm weather increase rapidly by offshoots from the edges of the leaves. In the aquarium goldfishes feed on their roots and leaves and soon destroy them. They are to no purpose as oxygenators. FLOATING PONDMOSS This beautiful many-branched mosslike floating plant, known botan- ically as Azolla caroliniana, Fig. 134, consists of clusters of tiny bright red or reddish-brown leaves usually bordered with dark green, and having short roots under the centre ot the fonts. In warm weather it occurs on slow-flowing streams and ponds in the Kastern and Middle States, but is more generally distributed in Southern waters. It does not thrive indoors in the aquarium and is prized on account of its quaint appearance, having no merit as an oxygenator. Another very similar species is A. filiculodes, a northern variety. FIG. 134. Floating Pondmoss, A-zolla caroliniana. CRYSTALWORT Two species of Crystalwort, Riccia fluitans and R. nutans, Fig. 135, are sometimes introduced into the aquarium. They are bright-green mosslike plants growing on the surface of still water, of which the first is the most common form and may be found in many coldwater ponds and streams. It has repeatedly forked, threadlike leaves, of which the segmented branches grow about x 2 to 3 4 inch in length; and the second has clusters of heart-shaped leaves with several pendant rootfibres. It is a native of Southern waters. R. fluitans thrives fairly well in nG -*3S- Cnrstaiw. J • Rutia fluitans. the aquarium, but as it is brittle and the fishes break it, it soon floats on the surface in fragments or sinks to the bottom to clog the roots and stems of other plants. It has no merit as an oxygenator. 209 AQUATIC PLANTS OF FRESHWATER and a leaf of 5. irasi/iensis. Reduced one-third. SALVINIA This is the most beautiful of the smaller floating aquatic plants. Two species, Salvinia natans, native to the Southern and Southwestern States, and the larger tropical S. brasiliensis, are to be obtained of florists. Fig. 136. The leaves of the native species are heartshaped, and of a bright, beautiful green color, and covered with hairlike bristles, the under side of the leaf being a purplish-red. The larger, more circular leaves of the exotic species are pale golden yellow with pea-green tints and a bright-green border; and are more rounded with a depressed centre which gives the leaf a heartshaped appearance. The leaves grow in rows along a fine threadlike stem, and in the moist atmosphere of the greenhouse FIG. 136. Salvinia, hal-vima natans, l _ ° develop and increase with increditable rapidity, but in the household aquarium soon diminish in size and rarely survive the winter. Goldfishes eat the roots, which also tends to check the growth. It is the handsomest of the floating aquarium plants but does not serve as an oxygenator. Two new species have recently be- come known, S. auriculata from South America, and S. elegans from Mexico. TRIANEA This sub-tropical floating water plant, Trianea bogotensis, Fig. 137, with its heartshaped, slightly roughened and waxlike green leaves, is an attractive floating plant, which develops with remarkable rapidity in the moist atmosphere of the greenhouse, but dwindles in size of leaf and loses vigor in the household aquarium. The pendant roots harbor infusoria and entomostraca and are eaten by the fishes. It makes a fine appearance in the aquarium, but will not serve as an oxvgenator. The leaves develop in the centre of the clusters and the blossom is small and yellow with a white centre. As a shade plant in out-of-doors tanks, it is to be recommended and grows well during the warm summer months, if not exposed to too strong sun- light. May be had of florists. FROG-BIT This floating plant, Hydrocharis morsus-ran^e, . . FIG. 137. Trianea, Trianea (Hort.) rig. 138, a European species, never takes bogotenm. Reduced one-third. AQUATIC PLANTS OF FRESH W A TER root and propagates both by seed and by summer runners, upon which buds are developed which become young plants. The kidneyshaped leaves grow on long stems, and the \ l / 2 inch in diameter flowers have three petals upon an erect scape. It is fairly hardy and easy to propagate in ponds in a mild climate, but does not thrive well in the household aqua- rium. Many of the water insects and most of the pond snails at- tack its leaves. At the approach of cold weather the leaves de- cay and the winter buds sink to the bot- tom of the pond, to rise to the surface with the advent ot warm weather. The plant is sub- tropical and will not survive very cold weather. Of the floating plants it is one of the largest fancied by aquariist, and the fine white blossoms are attractive and of pretty form. In the greenhouse the plant survives for years. May be had of dealers. A similar plant, the American Frog-bit, Limnobium spongia^ having dark-green heartshaped leaves, purplish on the under side, is a desirable greenhouse plant, but also will not thrive in the household aquarium. FIG. I J 8 . Frog-bit, HyJrocharia morsus-rana. Reduced one-third. WATER HYACINTH The Water hyacinth, Eichhornia, is steadily growing in favor with the breeder of the goldfish, as it one of the best spawning plants, in addition to its curious and handsome appearance. The thick floating leaf stalks and dark green, burnished leaves, the long trailing roots, and the beautiful flowers, give it a most ornate appearance. It propagates by seeds and buds which again develop young plants before separating from the parent plant, so that a single Water hyacinth mav be developed into manv hun- dreds in a single summer. It is native to a warm climate and difficult to keep over the winter in a cold one, even in the greenhouse. As a shade plant, in the open-air, it is to be recommended, and the easy facility for the removal of goldfish spawn to hatching dishes, which it affords, is a great advantage in its use as a spawning plant. In Florida it has become a plague, as it propagates in such numbers that it chokes the channels AQUATIC PLANTS OF FRESHWATER and waterways. May be had of dealers and florists generally. In warmer climates great care must be exercised that it may not get into the streams. Two species are generally to be had in the Eastern and Middle states, E. azuria, bearing lavender-blue flowers, and E. crassipes, with lilac-rose flowers. WATER LETTUCE This curious floating plant, Pistia stratiotes (Linn.), consists of a cluster of large, fine, yellowish-green velvety leaves, which in general form resembles garden lettuce, and is about the size of a teacup. It is very handsome in the moist hot atmosphere of the greenhouse, but will not thrive in the household aquarium or in the open air; as it is a shade plant and can not endure direct sunlight. May be had of dealers in aquatic plants. ORNAMENTAL AQUARIUM PLANTS A number of beautiful plants, rooted on the bottom but having floating leaves and emersed flowers may be introduced into the aquarium, but in the household there are but few that will grow satisfactorily. The best of these are the so-called Water Poppy, Limnocharis humboldtii^ a. hardy, handsome plant with small oval floating leaves and yellow poppy- like flowers; the Water Clover, Marsilea natans, which develops clover- like floating leaves and a delicate white flower; and the Water Snowflake Limnanthemus indicum, having small lilylike leaves and a dainty fringed pure white flower, from which it derives its popular name. Some of the dwarf lilies, Nymphe*?, may also be grown under favorable conditions, but as they are strong feeders and require abundant rich soil, they are better adapted for large receptacles than the usual smaller freshwater aquaria. All the above ornamental plants are indifferent generators of oxygen and should be introduced only for their ornamental appearance. Ouvirandra. This unique plant is known botanically by its Mad- agascar name, meaning Water-yam, and popularly as the Lattice-leaf or Lace-plant. The skeletonized, dark olive-green leaves spread just below the surface of the water from a single stalk or root stock and consist of a mere tracery of many nerves and crossveins, 6 to i 8 inches long and 2 to 4 inches broad. Ouvirandra fines trails^ (Poir.) or Madagascar Lace Plant, Fig. 139, is the finest form, having broad recumbent latticed leaves and 2 white petal- like bodies borne upon spikes about 2 inches long. The Lace Plant is grown in tubs or jars of freshwater, the frequent changing of which is AQUATIC PLANTS OF FRESHWATER differed in by authorities. Fishes are not necessary to its growth, but a few snails or tadpoles are required to cabonate the water and to keep down the alga; and scum. Ouvirandra bernieriana\ Decne.) or Bernier's Madagascar Lace Plant, is a sub-species having leaves with smaller open spaces and four-parted pinkish spikes. The plant is usually smaller than the foregoing. Both these species are grown in the Botanical Gardens F1G - x 39- Madagascar Lace Plant, Ou-virandra finestralis. at Washington and at the University of Pennsylvania. May be had of dealers in aquatic plants. The water in which these plants are grown should be clean and clear and should be kept at about 65 to 75°F. in a greenhouse. Despite the delicate and lacelike appearance of the plant, the leaves are tough and will stand rough handling. POND PLANTS The beauty of lakes, ponds and basins largely depends upon a tasteful and picturesque arrangement of aquatic and semi-aquatic plants both in the water and along the borders. A selection of different species of the Nympheas or Water Lilies, the Nelumbiae or Lotuses, the Limnachari or Water Poppies, and occasional groups of Trapaceae or Water-nuts, Mar- silea or Water Clover, Aponogetonae or Floating Cape Pond Weeds, Limnanthemae or Floating Heart, and of Eichhorni or Water Hyacinths will beautify the surface; and clusters of Cabomba, Myriophyllum, Pro- serpinaca and Ludwigia the lower depths, except in the flowering season; but care must be taken that these latter will not spread too greatlv and become a nuisance. Among all these there are hardy species which will thrive perennially when introduced, especially if the ponds and lakes are fed from natural springs that will not freeze solid in the winter. For the margins and borders a natural grouping of any of the native hardy and readily obtainable Naiads, the semi-aquatic Sagittarias or Arrowheads, the Water Lobelias, the Acorus or Sweet Flags or Calamus, the Pontederia or Pickerel weeds, the Cypera and Papyruses or Umbrella Plants, the Juncaceae and Cyperaceas or Rushes and Sedges, the Isoetes or Quillworts, the Orontium or Golden Club, the Peltandra or Arrow arums, and the Rannunculi, which include the Water Crowfoots 2I 3 AQUATIC PLANTS OF FRESHWATER and Marsh Buttercups; also the Castha or Marsh Marigolds, the Typha or Cat Tails, the Trollius or Globe Flowers, and many others enumerated in the Florists' catalogues, will produce most beautiful foliage and flower effects. If the pond is a natural basin, the plants may be set into the mud at the borders, but in cement tanks they should be planted in pots and dishes and these screened or hidden with rockwork. Terrarium and Aqua-terrarium Plants. In addition to most of the foregoing aquarium plants, Europeans collect or cultivate a consid- erable number of native and exotic aquatic and semi-aquatic plants for the terrarium and aqua-terrarium; of which, for brevity, only the botanical names will be given, as the most of them have no popular names. Many of the following may be obtained of florists or collected in bogs, along canals and other natural waterways. Submerged and Partly Emersed Plants. Heteranthera renifor- mis and H. zoster xfolia, Najas major, N. minor and N. flexilis, Zanichella palustris, Hydrilla verticillata, Isoetes lacustris, Pilularia globulifera, Sulularia aquatica, Saururus lucidus, Cyperus alternifolium, C. gracilis, C. papyrus, C. laxus and C. natalensis; Butomus umbellatus, Iris pseudacorus, Rumex aquaticus, Oryza saliva, Zizania aquatica, Spargenium ramosum, Typha latifolia, T. angustifolia and T. minima; Oenanthe fistulosa, Richardia albo-maculuta and R. tfthiopica; Pontederia cor data, Veronica beccabunga, Myosotis palustris, Acorus calamus, Catha palustris, Berula aquatica, Triglochin palustris, Com- arus palustris, Isolipis prolifera and /. gracilis, Scirpus radicans, Carex japonica-marginatis, Menyanthes trifoliata, Menth aquatica, Nasturtium officinale, and many others. Plants with Floating Leaves. Other than those already men- tioned are Alisma natans, Villarsia nymphteodes and V. humboldtiana; Poly- gonum natans, Aponogeton distachyus and others. Floating Plants. In addition to those heretofore mentioned are Stratiotes abides, Aldrovandia vesiculosa; and the Mexican species, Salvinia elegans. Of this wide range of plants selection may be made of those best adapted to grow entirely submerged, partly submerged, floating on the water, or together with many species of ferns, on the rocks or planted in pots. 214 CHAPTER X. The Molluscs, Vermes and Hydrozoa of Freshwater FRESHWATER MOLLUSCS The molluscs of interest to the aquariist belong so two classes. They mav he described as animals devoid of bony structure and joints, with soft, thick and tough tunics or mantles, fleshy bodies and calcarious shells of one or two valves; the Gasteropods or Univalves and the Lamelli- branchia or Bivalves. The first of these comprise the snails, limpets and slugs, and the second the mussels and oysters. They have simple diges- tive systems consisting of a mouth, a canal, digestive glands and anus; a contractile heart of several cavities with but few blood vessels, the blood being forced directly into the organs and through the spaces between them. The breathing structures are either comb-gills or simple air breathing chambers serving as lungs. The nervous system consist of special sense organs and ganglia of nerve substance located at different parts of the organism. Univalves. Most of the univalves have a single shell, but with some this is rudimentary, in others reduced to a few calcarious grandules beneath the mantle, though these latter are mostly land and marine forms. The shells of freshwater snails vary in form and may be flat-coiled, spiral, oval-oblong, elongate or earshaped, varying also from a length of two inches and over to microscopic sizes. Some have a horny or calcarious lid or operculum attached to the foot, whereby the aperture is closed when the snail has retired into it. Fig. 140. This is usually marked with curved striations about a central nucleus, the original operculum of the young snail. A mass of muscular tissue forms the foot, constituting the organ of motion, and movement consist of its contraction and expansion from the rear to the front. A part of the foot and the digestive system are enclosed in the shell. The head is distinct and usually has two, sometimes four, tentacles serving as organs of touch and possibly of hearing. The eyes are distinct and may be devel- oped at the ends of a second pair of tentacles or upon longer or shorter pedicels, between, to the side of, or under the tentacles. In the aquatic species respiration is by gills in the water breathers, or by an air-chamber or rudamentary lung in the air breathers, the entrance to the breathing organs being near the mantle. The shell is formed by an excretion of carbonate of lime and some FIG. 140. Outline of a Freshwater snail. A. Apex. B. Whorls. C. Suture. D. Spire. E. Body whorl. F. Periphery. G. Inner lip. H. Outer lip. I. Operculum. 217 MOLLUSCS, VERMES AND HYDROZOA animal matter; the whorls turning about a central columella or pillar, with the outer or body whorl always the larger. The apex is the first growth of the shell and subsequent development is marked by lines of growth in- dicating a former position of the aperture. When the suture or depression between the whorl, from the apex to the aperture, forms a right hand spiral, the shell is right-handed or dextral, and when turned to the left is left- handed or sinistral. The shell grows by the addition of new layers on the lip or outer edge, but the inner portion of the mantle also forms calcareous matter to increase the thickness of the shell with age. The outer coating is the harder, but the action of the acids in the water often erodes it, whereby the shell may lose some of the whorls. When the erosion has penetrated the interior lining or nacre and the acidulated water comes into contact with the animal, death results. Reproduction is by eggs, and some of the genera are oviparous, depositing the spawn to hatch, while others are ovoviviparous and hatch the young in the oviduct of the female. The oviparous snails deposit translucent gelatinous masses in which the yolks of the eggs are visible, which enlarge and gradually assume the form of tiny snails with trans- parent shells and escape from their gelatinous covers to the plant. The ovoviviparous snails bury themselves in the mud and silt and bring forth a number of perfect young, which, though very small, exactly resemble their parents. Some species carry the young with them, inside the shell, until they have grown to considerable size. Bivalves. Most of the Bivalves have double-hinged valves or shells, a tonguelike foot, sometimes provided with a byssus or tuft of threads with which to attach themselves. The body of the animal consists of a mantle of two lobes, leaflike gills, one or more siphons or orifices, a heart, stomach, liver, intestines, reproductive organs and muscles, Fig. 141. The valves increase in size by the addition of concentric rings to the outer edges and in thickness by deposits of nacre on the inner side; the umbone or nucleus being the original shell of the young mussel. The valves are united by a hinge which varies in structure with the different species, and are kept closed by adductor muscles connecting them at each end. The interlocking projections of the hinge are known as teeth, and according to their location are cardinal when placed under the beak, anterior and poste- rior lateral when placed before or behind the umbones. A set of muscles constitute the anterior and posterior retractors and protractors which control the foot. Mussels have no distinct head, the mantle covering the entire animal and is attached to the valves by a mem- brane. Under it, on the posterior end, are the gill plates, partly separated by the foot and the viscera, and forming a large cavity. In front of the gills 218 MOLLUSCS, VERMES AND HYDROZOA are the labial palps, two pairs of triangular flaps and between the gills and the hinge is the peri- cardium containing a three- chambered heart, and below this the organ which serves as the kidneys. The liver is a com- pound digestive gland over the posterior portion of the gills and under this is the stomach, con- nected with the mouth by the oesophagus. The digestive canal consists of an irregular coiled tube which passes through the pericardium to the posterior end of the body. The sim- ple nervous system consists of ganglia at the mouth, foot and adductor muscles. Respiration consist in tak- ing the water through the inhal- ing siphon, passing it over and between the gills and out of the body bv the exhaling siphon. These water currents reach the other organs, aerate the blood, convey food to the stomach and carry off the waste materials of the system. Reproduction varies with the genera, but with most of the freshwater species is the following. The eggs are developed in the ovaries, pass to the gills, where they lodge and hatch. The minute valves are connected by an elastic hinge, the foot only partly developed, as from it extends a number of slender filaments, the byssus. When ejected by the parent, they swim by opening and closing the valves until they come into contact with a fish to which they attach themselves and there undergo a metamor- phosis. The byssus disappears, the foot is fully developed, the interior organs undergo material changes and the valves assume the shape ot the adult. Then the mussel quits its host and falling to the bottom takes up the habits of its kind. The hereafter described molluscs are those of fair size which will be of interest to the aquariist, the breeder of aquarium fishes, and the student of natural history in the home aquarium. The nomenclature is that now FIG. 141. Diagrams of a Freshwater Mussel. B. Beak. L. Ligament. H.H. Hinge. A. Adductor scars. S. Shell. F. Foot. Br. Branchial openings. A. Anal opening. The Arrows indicate direction of the animal and the currents 219 MOLLUSCS, VERMES AND HYDROZOA adopted by Conchologists and differs materially from that in use prior to the past decade. The classification is in part that of Lang's Textbook of Comparative Anatomy and that of the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia. Some of the mentioned genera are undesirable in the aquarium and should only find a place in the terrarium or in special aquaria adapted to their study. Classification of the Univalves. Freshwater univalves are of two Orders, the Prosabranchia, gilled or water-breathing snails, including the families of the Neritidae, Viviparidae, Valvatidae, Ampularidae, Hy- drobidae and Melanidas in the first Order; and in the second Order the Pulmonata or lung-breathing snails, including most of the land snails and slugs, together with the semi-aquatic family of the Succinea, the aquatic family of the Lymnaeidae, comprising the Lymnaea, Planorbes, Segmentina and Ancylus, and the family of the Physidae, comprising the Physa and Aplexa. The following classification will briefly describe these orders, families genera and species, and serve as a key to the subsequent descriptions, which are necessarily confined to Eastern and Middle States snails, though the most of them are also common to other sections of the United States. Order Prosabranchea — Shell spiral, aperture closed with an operculum, gills internal, water-breathing. Family Neritidae — Shell semiglobular, aperture closed with an operculum, breathing by gills. Genus Neritina — N. reclivata, N. showalteri. Family Viviparidae — Shell concoidal or discoidal, aperture closed with an operculum, gills internal. Genus Viviparus — V. viviparus, V. georgianus. Genus Campeloma — C. decisum, C. ponderosus. Genus Lioplax — L. subcarinata. Family Valvatidae — Shell depressed, aperture rounded, closed with an operculum, gills protrusile and plumelike. Genus Valvata — V. tricarinata, V. bicarinata, V. sincera. Family Ampullariida? — Shell globular, depressed at apex, aperture closed with an operculum. Genus Ampullaria — A. depressa, A. miamiensis. Family Hydrobiidae — Shell globose or subglobose, apex well defined, operculum wingshaped or oval. Genus Somatogyrus — S. altilis, S. subglobosus. Genus Amnicola — A. limosa, A. granum. Genus Bithynia — B. tentaculata. Family Melaniidae — Shell elongated or conical or fusiform with pointed aperture usually subrhomboidal, closed with an operculum. Genus Goniobasis — G. virgitiica, G. mulineata. Genus Anculosa — A. carinatus. MOLLUSCS, VERMES AND HYDROZOA Order Pulmonata. — Shell either spiral, conical, merely a calcarious plate, or altogether rudimentary; no operculum in freshwater species, breathing by a simple pulmonary sac; coming to the surface to breathe. Family Succineada- — Shell imperforate, thin, ovate or oblong; aperture large, no operculum, breathing by lungs. Genus Succinea — S. obliqua, S. retusa. Family Lymnaeidae — Shell thin, spiral or conical, no operculum, eyes sessile, breath- ing by lungs. Genus Lymnaa — L. stagnalis, L. palustris, L. columella, L. decidiosa, L. catascopium. Genus Planorbis — P. bicarinatus, P. campanulatus , P: trivolvis. Genus Segmentina — S. armigerus, S. wheat'leyi. Genus Ancylus — A. rivularis, A. parallelus. Family Physida* — Shell sinistral, oblong, thin, spire acute, aperture narrow oval, no operculum, breathing by lungs. Genus Physa — P. heterostropa. Genus Aplexa — A. hypnorum. Neritina. These snails are not generally distributed and are seldom met with. They have semi-globular shells consisting of an abrupt, flat spiral with crescent-shaped aperture and are rarely over a half inch in length. N. reclivata, Fig. 142, the larger native species, has a thick, strong globose-oval shell of greenish-olive color undiluted with faint green lines, polished on the under side, three-quarters inch long, consisting of three whorls, of which the body whorl takes up almost the entire shell and the spire very short and al- most always eroded by the action ot acids in the water. FIG - ^ The aperture is about four-fifths the length of the shell. The body is pale grey clouded with black, the head dusky, the tentacles long and rodlike, the eye prominent and placed on pedicels at the outer base of the tentacles, which are marked by darker or black lines. The wingshaped operculum has the fanlike striations spread from a nucleus at the upper margin. The snail is native to Florida. Its movements are slow and it does not survive in the aquarium. It is oviparous, laying from 18 to 36 eggs on plants and stones which hatch in 14 to 16 days. N. showalteri, Fig. 143, is a very rare smaller snail native to Alabama. Its J 4 to \i inch long rather thick shell is smooth, round, semi-translucent, *The bar, in all cases, indicates the true size. MOLLUSCS, VERMES AND HYDROZOA I and of a greenish-yellow horn color. The three whorls are convex, the spire very much de- pressed and the suture spightly impressed. The body whorl takes up almost the entire length of the shell. fig. i43- ^riunatho-waidtru Enlarged. The incurved aperture and the operculum are crescent-shaped, the body of a dusky grey color, the tentacles long and the eyes prominent. The Neritina are widely distributed in Europe and tropical countries but only these two are native to the United States. Viviparus. These snails inhabit marshy places, still water, rivers and streams. They have the whorl of the shell very convex, an angulated aperture and a horny operculum showing concentric lines of growth. The larger species of the Eastern and Middle States attain a length of shell of I y 2 inches. The females of most of the genera have evenly developed, sharply pointed tentacles, while the males have the right thicker and more bluntly pointed. These snails live exclusively on dead animal matter, algae and confervas and are harmless to aquarium plants, though not as active as the Planorbes. They were formerly classed as the Paludina. V. Fiviparus, Fig. 144, the most common species, inhabits ponds and still water. It has a thick, well-rounded oblong olive-green or brownish shell of four or five inflated, sharply defined whorls; a brunt apex and deeply impressed suture. The body whorl is marked by three well-defined reddish-brown bands which diminish towards the smaller whorls. The thick snout and FIG. 144. Potomac Snail, Vi-viparus -viviparus. l° n g) Curved, flexible tentacles and the body are bluish-grey with faint orange and yellow spots. The projecting eyes are placed upon short pedicels under the tentacles, and the foot is bluntly ovate and broad. The operculum is ovate and shows concentric rings. This snail is ovoviviparous, the eggs hatching at different periods in the oviduct, at which time the snail secretes itself in the mud or pebbles. It is common to America and Europe, and is popu- larly known as the "Potomac snail." Abundant at Washington, D. C. V. georgianuS) Fig. 145, is found in canals, lakes and slow streams, sometimes in ponds and ditches. The shell is brownish-green in color MOLLUSCS, VERMES AND HYDRO'/<>\ with usually five yellow bands, more distinctly marked on the body whorl. It has four to five convex whorls, the first a mere dot and the body whorl very wide and exceed- ing half the shell in length. All are rOlinded and Sharply FIG. 145. Georgia Snail, Vi-viparus georgianus. defined, with impressed suture. The operculum is bluntly pearshaped and thick, with well defined lines. The body is dark brown, spotted with yellow, the snout broad and the tentacles long and divergent. The eyes are placed on the outer bases of the tentacles. It is ovoviviparus and harmless to aquatic plants when sufficiently fed, and bears a close resem- blance to the foregoing. Quite generally distributed throughout the Middle and Southern States; first found at Hopetown, Georgia. Known as the Georgian Snail. Also note the Japanese Snail, V. malleatus hereafter described. Campeloma. These snails inhabit still water and slow-flowing streams. The shells are thick, heavy and about as long, but narrower than the foregoing, and the whorls flatter and not as rounded. The larger Eastern and Middle States species rarely exceed 1 V2 inches in length and most of the species less than ^ inch. C. decisum^ Fig. 146, is common in ponds and nearly all freshwater in the Eastern section of North America, from Nova Scotia to the Rio Grande. The % to 1 inch long shell is elongate-ovate, rather thick and heavy with a smooth surface not very considerably marked by lines of growth. Its color is greenish with ir- regularly disposed brown lines of growth and is usually eroded at theapex so that of the five whorls sometimes but two or three fig. 146. campdoma dcchum. remain. The body whorl is about two-thirds the length of the shell, the aperture oval-oblique more than half the length of the body whorl, and the operculum is elongate- ovate with a thin transparent margin. It is ovoviviparous and harmless in the aquarium, though a considerable feeder and should be furnished with food in addition to the alga? and confervae. It is found in streams in New 223 MOLLUSCS, VERMES AND HYDROZOA Jersey, the Delaware, Schuylkill and the Susquehanna. Common through- out New England. C. ponderosus, Fig 147, is the largest Eastern and Middle States species but not as common as the foregoing. The i3._£ inch long polished shell is globosely-ovate, very thick and heavy, with a roughened surface showing very heavy striations of growth; of a greenish horn- color with irregular- ly disposed brown and black streaks. It has five or six whorls, of which the body whorl is equal to about four-fifths FIG " I47 " *-&«"****»***. of the length of the shell, a short spire and a perfect apex, usually eroded. The aperture is oval, narrowed above, slightly oblique, and about half the length of the shell. The operculum is elongate-ovate with a thin margin. The body is a dull brown, the tentacles thick and the eyes prominent and black in color. It is ovoviviparous and is found in New York, the Lake regions, Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Michigan, Tennessee and Alabama. No experiments with it in the aquarium have been reported. Lioplax. These snails are similar to the foregoing but have parallel sides, the front truncated and the posterior extremely obtusely rounded. The shells are concoidal, elongated and thin, the apex pointed, and the operculum with concentric rings. L. subcarinata, Fig. 148, is found in Pennsylvania, New Jersey, Ohio, Kentucky and some other of the Middle Western States. The elongated shell is 3/£ inch long, of a bright brownish-green color with brown trans- verse lines of growth. Of the five whorls, the body whorl takes up three-fourths of the shell; the suture is dis- tinct, the apex pointed but often eroded, and the aperture pear- fig. 148. Lioplax subcarinata. shaped. The lines of the operculum are concentric, and the body a dark grey dotted with orange. It is ovoviviparous. Fine specimens have been taken from the Delaware and Schuylkill rivers and their tributaries. This is the only species of the MOLLUSCS, VERMES AND HYDROZOA Eastern and Middle States and there is but one in the Southern States, L. pihbryi of the Chipola River, Florida, a very rare species. Valvata. These small snails never exceed % to 3 8 inch in diameter and are principally prized on account of their odd appearance and the curious formation of their water-breathing organs or branchia. Most of the species are almost exclusively vegetable feeding and destructive to plants, and but few should be introduced into the aquarium, though they are comparatively harmless, due to their small size. V. tricarinata. Fig. 149, has a slightly depressed turbinate, translucent yellowish-and greenish-brown shell l ± inch in diameter, of three to four smooth whorls with faint lines of growth and flat- tened spire. The body is slight] v translucent, the plume-like branchial fila- FIG - *49- *Vw* tricarinata. Enlarged. ments long, the eyes black, the posterior of the foot extending nearly to the circumference of the shell, and the thin operculum near the extremity of the foot. It is ovi- parousand vegetable s^^^dM**^ feeding and inhabits FIG. 150. J'al-vata bicarinata. Enlarged. the Eastern and Middle States generally, with a kindred slightlv larger variety,/ 7 , bicarinata, Fig. 150, native in the Schuylkill river and its tributaries. It is about ^inch in diameter. V. sincera, Fig. 151, has a globose-discoidal faintly striated brownish- green shell, consisting of three and a half accurately rounded whorls which enlarge rapidly from the apex. The suture is deeply impressed, the spire flattened and the apex obtuse. This snail is seldom over ",. to J 4 inch in diameter and OCCUrS in Vermont and FIG - I S I - Val-vata iincera. Enlarged. the Northwestern States. There are other species of the Valvata but they do not occur in the Eastern or Middle States. Ampullaria. This familv has no members inhabiting waters of the Eastern and Middle States. All the species are large and handsome; but as their size would lead to the inference that they would be destructive to aquarium plants, experiment would be advisable before introducing them, as their food is vegetable and those kept in confinement eagerly devour lettuce. They are nocturnal in habits and seldom appear out of the shell during the day. They are interesting inmates for the Terra-aquarium. MOLLUSCS, VERMES AND HYDROZOA A. depressa, Fig. 152, has a greenish-olive two inches long shell, with a series of ten to fifteen olive bands and yellow margins on the five smooth and polished whorls, which are more or less distinctly marked by lines of growth, a well defined suture and a depressed spire. The operculum is auriculate with the nucleus at the inner margin. The body is grey, FIG. 152. Ampullaria depressa. striated and dotted with black, the tenticles of the males yellowish-brown and of the females reddish or orange. It inhabits canals and ditches of soft muddy bottom and sluggish current in the middle Southern States, is oviparous and lays 30 to 70 eggs on plants above the water level, which are soft when deposited but acquire a hard shell from exposure to the atmosphere. They hatch in about 12 days and are the size of a large pea. A. miamiensisy Fig. 153, has a globose, yellowish-brown 2 1 / 2 inches long heavy shell with moderately impressed suture, a depressed spire and large body whorl. The aperture occupies about one-half the length ot FIG. 153- Ampullar ia miamltnsh, the shell, the operculum is calcarious and striated, with the nucleus at the upper side. This handsome snail occurs only in Southern freshwater, principally in Florida. Probably the largest native North American species is A. pneiy from the same locality, which reaches a length of 3 to 3^ inches. 226 MOLLUSCS, VERMKS AND H YDRO'/OA I Somatogyrus. These small snails are quite generally distributed, and on account of their size harmless and inconspicuous in the aquarium. They are slothful in their habits and hibernate in cold water. The shells are pretty and of fine form. ' Enlarged, black. It is quite generally distributed in the eastern section of the United States and has been found in the Potomac at Washington, and in both the Delaware and Schuylkill rivers. Also occurs in cold water ponds in the Middle States generally. S. subglobosus, Fig. 155, has a % to l{ inch long obliquely transverse subglobose solid polished yellowish-green shell of four whorls„an impressed suture, a short spire and an oblique white aperture. The body is yellow- ish-brown or grey and the tentacles brown. It is not common to the F^astern and Middle but occurs in the Southern States, principally in South Carolina, but is occasionally met with in Virginia and Maryland and at Washington, D. C. Amnicola. These tiny snails are principally mentioned as they con- stitute a numerous genus, the Hydrobidae. They have thin ovate conical shells with acute spires, small oblique, rounded ovate apertures and hornv opercular; are widely distributed and occur abundantly in many localities. A. litnosa, Fig. 156, has a conical very convex vellowish-brown slightly wrinkled % inch long shell tinted with grey, of five or six whorls, with deeply impressed su- ture. The bodv whorl takes up about one-half the length of the shell. The body is brown and the ten- tacles of a lighter color. It I FIG. 155. Somatogyrus subglobosus. Enlarged. I FIG. 156. Amnicula limosa. Enlarged. 227 MOLLUSCS, VERMES AND HYDROZOA occurs from Maine to Pennsylvania and Ohio, and is very numerous on the muddy shores of the Delaware and Schuylkill rivers. A. granum is a very small species, not much larger than a pin's head, found in ponds near Philadelphia. It has a slender, conic-ovate yellowish- brown shell, having four or five convex whorls, deeply impressed suture and orbicular aperture. It ranges from Lake Superior to Virginia. Gould mentions another species, A. -pallida, which has not been described as occurring in the Middle States. Bithynia. These small whorled snails are usually found in ponds, ditches, canals and slow streams of not too cold water. They are oviparous and water-breathing, differing principally from some of the smaller Physa in having the whorl of the shell dextral. They thrive fairly well in the aquarium but are vegetable feeding and indifferent scavengers. B. tentaculata. Fig. 157, has a glossy grey or horn-colored conical j4 to y 2 inch long shell of six rounded whorls, with a distinct suture and pointed apex. The body whorl takes up more than half the length of the shell. The body is almost black, spotted with yellow and the divergent filiform tentacles are long and slender. The fig. 157. Bithyma tentacuiata. Enlarged. eves are black and set at the base of the tentacles and the obovate operculum calcarious and brittle. It is a harmless oviparous snail, feeding principally on decaying vegetation. Found quite generally in the Eastern and Middle States. Melaniid^:. It should be noted of this family that it contains many genera and hundreds of species. Almost every river drainage system of the world has either distinct or closely allied forms; those of the United States being the Strepomatidae, of which there are many local genera, the most common of the Eastern and Middle States being the Goniobases and Anculosa of the Hudson, Susquehanna, Delaware and Potomac basins. For brevity these only are described, the others are closely related similar forms. Goniobasis. This genus has most beautiful conical or fusiform shells, showing faint lines of growth and often series of longitudinal ridges on the seven to ten whorls. Occurs quite generally in flowing waters. G. virginica, Fig. 1 58, is a very common species of the middle Atlantic coast States. It has a truncated turreted yellowish-brown J/ s to 1 inch long shell, usually eroded at the spire. The eight to ten whorls are marked with a dull reddish line near the base of the whorls, with a second line I 228 MOLLUSCS, VERMES AND HYDRO/.OA near the middle of the body whorl, but one or both are sometimes absent. The slen- der body is pale orange above and bluish white below, banded by irregular interrupt- ed black lines. It occurs in the above mentioned local- ities and is very abundant in the Delaware and Schuvlkill rivers. FIG. 158. Goniobasis •virginica. FIG. 159. Goniobasis multineata. G. multineata, Fig. 159, is also common in the tributaries of the Delaware river and in the Middle States. It has a gradually tapering very slightly convex 5/$ to 3| inch long conical yellowish-brown shell of seven whorls marked by a number of reddish or brown bands, a pointed ob- long aperture and a usuallv eroded apex. It is also com- mon to Eastern and Middle States river svstems. Anculosa. Many species occur in all the Middle-Western and South- ern States but only one species is generally distributed in the Middle States. A. carinata, Fig. 160, has a conical dark horn-colored or blackish 3 + inch long shell, very variable in appearance, with three or four whorls, all more or less keeled on the middle of the whorls. The suture is but slightly indented, the apex often truncated but usually eroded, and the aperture OVal and One-third aS FIG. 160. Anculosa carinatus. longas the shell. Varieties of this species are verv generally found in streams and rivulets throughout the Middle and some of the New England States. Succinea. This genus contains the most generally distributed semi- aquatic snails which are only a part of their existence in freshwater, making their homes in marshes and the mudbanks of ditches, ponds and streams and are found in swampy places or on plants along the banks. They are to be distinguished from the aquatic snails by the presence of four cylindrical tentacles, the longer bearing the eyes. Thev are not desirable in the aquarium, but are frequently introduced with aquatic plants. I 229 MOLLUSCS, VERMES AND HYDROZOA FIG. 1 6 1 . Succinea obliqua. I S. obliqua, Fig. 161, has a J/ s to 1*4 inch long, ovate, thin and fragile pale-green or amber shell, which is faintly striated and roseate in color at the apex. It has three whorls of which the body whorl is large and much expanded, and about ^ the length of the shell. The spire is very small, the aperture oval and is two- thirds the length of the shell. The body has a yellowish- brown color which shows through the semi-transparent shell. This snail is quite generally distributed in New York, Pennsylvania, New Jersey and Georgia. It is destructive to aquarium plants. S. retusa, Fig. 162, has a x / 2 to %, inch long somewhat conical ovate- oblong very thin pellucid yellowish-white minutely striated shell of three whorls, of which the body whorl constitutes nine-tenths of the entire shell and tapers gradually to the apex. The spire is short, the suture indistinct, and the aperture four-fifths the length of the shell. The body is a little longer than the shell, of a translucent greyish color marked with black spots. This snail is found quite generally in the Eastern and Middle States. Lymn^a. This numerously represented genus is found in stagnant and sluggish water, ponds and streams; feeding upon waste matter and aquatic plants, as all the genus are herbivorous and a few species also carnivorous. They are active, prolific and thrive in the aquarium, but are destructive and constant feeders, preferring the healthy growing plants to algae and decaying vegetation; though they are also effective scavengers and devour animal substances and food offal, and sometimes their own spawn. When bred in the aquarium they considerably loosetheir destructive habits and become feeders on algae. All are air breathers and will leave the water to rest upon aquatic plants, but only at long intervals. The shells of this family are all dextral. L. stagna/is, Fig. 163, is the largest representative of this group, the shell reaching a length of 1 ^ to 2 inches. It is usually of a greenish-white or yellowish-grey color; of six or eight whorls; of which the body whorl is larger, fuller and rounder than the others, which are drawn to a long, graceful dextral spiral, terminating in a finely pointed apex. The suture is FIG. 162. Succinea t etusa. Enlar 230 MOLLUSCS, VERMES AND HYDROZOA FIG. 163. Niagara Snail, Lymnaa stagnalis. deep and the ap- erture oval. The body is yellQwish- grey with a green- ish tinge, spotted with brown and the tentacles flat, triangular and have a backward trend. It is ovi- parous and the 70 to 150 eggs, deposited at in- tervals in cylindrical capsules, hatch in 1 5 to 20 days. This is one of the most handsome snails, of which a pair or two may be kept in the aquarium without damage to the plants. Its range is over the entire northern latitudes, and in the United States is found from Vermont through the Northern tier of States to the Pacific Ocean. It is popularly known as the "Niagara Snail." L. palustris, Fig. 164, is a destructive though interesting common snail found in nearly all ditches, ponds and streams in the Eastern Atlantic slope and in Europe. The conical shell is 3^ to 1 1 Ji _ inches long, of a light horn-color on the body whorl and usually a dark horn-color, brown or black above. It has five or six whorls sep- arated by white lines, with the bodv whorl half as longastheshell. The ovate aperture is FIG - l6 4- Lymnaa paiutmt. nearly as long as the body whorl and the suture is deeply depressed. The body is dark gray or nearly black, with a violet tint, faintly spotted with yellow and black, and the tentacles flat and conical. It ranges from New England through Pennsylvania and south. Its habit of coming above the water serves as an identification in the aquarium, into which it is sometimes introduced with aquatic plants. The 60 to 80 eggs are deposited in a cylindrical capsule and hatch in 12 to 20 days. L. columella, Fig. 165, has an ovate thin and fragile 5 S to 3 + inch long shell of four whorls crossed by minute lines of growth. The suture is deeply im- pressed and conspicuous, the spire narrow and the aperture larger than half the length of the shell. The body whorl is large and expanded, and the 231 MOLLUSCS, VERMES AND HYDROZOA FIG. i 66. Lymnsea dccidiosa. Enlarged. body partly translucent with the central portion lightbrown. The tentacles are short and mottled with black. It in- habits the Eastern coast States from Maine to South Carolina, and west to Ohio and the FIG. 16c. Lymtura columella. Enlarged. XT _ ..L *. d. T U Northwestern States. 1 he spawn is deposited in irregular patches of 50 to 100 and hatch in about 20 days. This species is similar to Succinea, but may be distinguished bv the spiral line on the shell and the fold on the columella. L. decidiosa^ Fig. 166, has a somewhat inflated thin translucent light- ochre or brownish 3 + inch long shell, showing faint lines of growth. The spire is rapidly attenuated to an acute point, and the five whorls are sep- arated by a deep suture, the aperture being one-half the length of the shell. The body is light yellowish-grey, minutely dotted with white; and the tentacles short, broad and translucent. Its range is from New England to the Mississippi and it inhabits rivulets and small lakes. L. catascopium, Fig. 167, is very similar to L. putris of Europe and has a smooth and polished ^ inch long greyish or yellowish-brown shell with lightly marked lines of growth, and is darker at the apex, with four or five convex whorls of which the body whorl is large,' the suture well defined, the spire tapering to an acute point and the aperture one-half the length of the shell. The body is yellowish-brown sprinkled FIG. ,67. Lymn«a catatcopium ^ Ijght.yd low SpOtSJ the tentacles are short and the translucent foot as long as the aperture. It inhabits the rivers and streams of Massachusetts and New York near Niagara Falls, and the Delaware and Schuylkill rivers; and is one of the most frequently met with species. It is often introduced into the aquarium with plants. The 20 to 40 eggs are deposited in a transparent yellowish capsule which hatch in about 16 days. All the native Lymnaea should be only sparingly introduced into the aquarium as they make havoc with the plants. Some species sever the ■3 2 MOLLUSCS, VERMES AND HYDROZOA leaves by clean cuts across the blades, others by devouring the edges. It the aquarium is not covered they leave the water and crawling on the glass and over the edges dry out and die. One was found twenty feet from the nearest aquarium. Planorbis. This numerously represented genus has the spiral shell flattened so that the view from above, below and on each side is different. The species vary in size, the largest being one and a half inch in diameter and the smallest less than ~ inch. It is the best native easily procured snail for the aquarium, preferring algae to any other food, and if not over- stocked is harmless to aquatic plants and is a good scavenger. P. bicarinatus,F\g. 1 68, has a brownish-grey shell never over l/ 2 inch in diameter, showing pale grey lines in the suture, with more than three complete whorls, angulated on each side with a slightly keeled periphery. The spire is on the left side and is depressed as deeply as on the other side. The body is a dusky or blackish-brown and the tentacles a yellowish-brown, generally of varying lengths. It inhabits quiet waters from New England to Georgia and west- ward to Tennessee, and will hi- bernate in cold water. The eggs are deposited from March to fig. 1 68. PW^W/»«^ four views Enlarged. July in small irregular yellow masses and hatch in 15 to 25 days, depend- ent upon the temperature. P. campanulatus, Fig 169, has a yellowish 3^ inch in diameter compact shell, consisting of four slowly enlarging flattened whorls, distinctly marked FIG. 169. Planorbis campanulatus, four views. Enlarged. 2 33 MOLLUSCS, VERMES AND HYDROZOA with lines of growth, with the body whorl slightly depressed. The suture is distinct, the apex compressed and the aperture dilated and deflected to the left; the other side showing the whorls nearly as well defined. The body is a dusky brown or russet, and the filiform tentacles are long and marked with dark brown lines. It inhabits streams of colder water in New England, New York, Northern Pennsylvania, Ohio and Illinois, and has been occasionally met with in the vicinity of Philadelphia. P. trivohis, Fig. 170, is a very generally distributed species having a laterally flattened V± to ]/ % inch in diameter yellowish-green or brown shell, which consists of four and a half cylindrical whorls with finely marked lines of growth, and is slightly keeled towards the left side. The aperture is also deflected to the left. The spire is slightly impressed, nearly level on the right side, but the left side is considerably depressed and the whorls FIG. 170. Planorbis tri-vol-vis, four views. Slightly enlarged. disappear in a depression about two and a half whorls from the apex. The body is dark brown dotted with ochre and the tentacles long and slender. This snail occurs very generally in the Eastern and Middle States and is found in the Delaware and Schuylkill rivers. Its eggs are laid in a yellowish vermiform mass and hatch in 12 to 20 days. P. magnificuSj Fig. 171, is the largest recently known American species, having the flattened sinistral shell very large and heavy, about 1 l / 2 inch in diameter and 1 inch high. The upper or spire half of the shell is pale- brown and the lower half dark-brown. The surface is glossy and marked by fine lines of growth. The spire is narrow, the suture depressed, and the summit of the nearly five complete whorls acutely angular and the umbilicus deeply funnel-shaped. The base of the whorls is so narrowly rounded as to appear almost angular. The last whorl is very large, rounded at the periphery, and the irregularly ovate aperture but slightly oblique. 234 MOLLUSCS, VERMES AND HYDROZOA Found at Lower Cape Fear river in the vicinity of Wilmington, N. C. No other locality has been reported. FIG. 171. Cape Fear river Snail, Planorbis magnificus. Four views. There are many other smaller species of Planorbes but their size would preclude their use in the aquarium, though they are nearly all hardy and will survive, except the very cold water species. Segmentina. These snails differ from the Planorbes in having pro- jections or teeth within the aperture of the shell, which is discoidal with but few of the whorls visible on both sides. S. armigerus, Fig. 172, has a light-brown polished shell x + to ^ inch in diameter, with the lip much darker. The four sub-cylindrical whorls are slightly keeled upon the left side and show faint lines of growth. The right side is nearly planed with a slightly de- FIG - J ? 2 - Segmentina armigerus. Enlarged. pressed centre. The body is a dull grey. It is a tiny insignificant snail to but little purpose in the aquarium. Quite generally met with in the Eastern and Middle States. S. wheatleyi, Fig 173, is a still smaller species, rarely over y$ inch in diameter, having a slightly keeled shell with the two and a half whorls distinctly outlined on the right side and lost in the depression of the left side. The aperture is at an angle FIG. 171. Segmentina ivheatleyi. Enlarged. .1 1 r. 15 & 6 pointing to the left. Inhabits rivers and lakes of the Eastern and Middle States. 2 3 5 MOLLUSCS, VERMES AND HYDROZOA 1 1 Ancylus. These small snails are popularly known as "Freshwater Limpets" and though belonging to the family of the Lymnseidae greatly differ from them in appearance. They are sluggish and do not swim o r float in the water but adhere to plants or move slowly over the bottom. Their food is principally algas and aquatic fungi. A. rivularis, Fig. 174, inhabits slow-flowing streams and may be found on aquatic plants, stones and on the bottom near the margins. The y± inch long dishlike shell terminates in a broad oval base which en- tirely covers the snail so that only the tentacles and a part of the snout protrude when the snail is active. It is of pale transparent horn-color, with the body greyish- brown marked with white, havinga Central yellowish F1G - J ?4- Ancylus rivularis. Enlarged. longitudinal line upon the head. About 10 to 16 eggs are enclosed in a round capsule, which hatch in 20 to 36 days. It inhabits the Delaware and Susquehanna rivers and tributaries, and is met with generally in the Eastern and Middle States to Upper Missouri. A. paral/elus, Fig. 175, greatly resembles A. lacustris of Europe, but may be distinguished in having the apex of the shell directed to the right, in opposite direction to the European species. It may be found in still water and sluggish streams on the under sides of float- ing plants, and has a very thin yellowish mottled shell with a sharp apex and oval aperture. It grows to a length of ^ inch. The body is yellowish grey with FIG. 175. Ancylus parallels. Enlarged. the tentacles of 3. lighter color. The 6 to 20 eggs are enclosed in a globular capsule and hatch in 16 to 30 days. Neither of these species of Ancylus long survive in the aquarium as they fall victims to the fishes. Physa. This genus may be distinguished by the left-hand or sinist- ral turn of the whorls of the spindle-shaped shell. It has no operculum but an extended mantle and two long and slender tentacles. It is not a numerous genus though widely distributed. A sub-genus is Aplexa. 236 I 1 MOLLUSCS, VERMES AND HVDROZOA P. heterostropha, Fig. 176, reaches a length of shell 3 4 inch and is to be found on the water plants of ponds and streams quite generally in the Eastern and Middle States. The elongated translucent polished spindle- shaped shell is ovate, of yellowish-brown color terminating rather abruptly in an acute apex, and the large aperture is oval, about three-fourths the length of the shell. ac ,1 c C I" L ._ FIG. 176. P/iysa heterostropha. Enlarged. Or the four or nve slight- ' ' ly convex whorls the body whorl is inflated and more than half the length of the shell. The suture is well marked, the apex pointed and the aperture narrow and longer than the spire. The body is yellowish-grey or darker, dotted with whitish-yellow; and the long and slender tentacles are pointed. It is an active snail but of objectionable vegetable feeding habit. It de- posits 6 to 20 eggs in a capsule, which hatch in 1 5 to 20 days. Found generally throughout the Eastern and Middle States and in the Delaware and Schuylkill rivers. It is frequently introduced into the aquarium with aquatic plants, and is one of the most common freshwater snails. Aplexa hypnorum, Fig. 177, has a slender translucent highly polished yellowish-brown or ochre shell, of five or six oblique revolving flattened whorls with convex apex and narrow aperture. The body is black, which tends to give the thin shell also a black color. It inhabits stagnant pools and is found FIG. 177. Aplexa hypnorum. Enlarged. } n S loW-flowing Streams of Vermont, Massachusetts, New York, Pennsylvania and the Western States. There are many other species of Physa and Aplexa, but not native to the Easten and Middle States. As they are largely herbivorous and therefore objectionable in the aquarium they need not be described. General Remarks. Descriptions of the colors of the shells ot snails can only be done approximately as they are variable and depend upon the character of the water which the snails inhabit. The presence of iron, for instance, stain them to darker colors or black, while slight acid- ities bleach them to paler colors. If the empty shells are laid in oxalic acid their true colors will soon appear. Those given are based on the ob- servations of the author, either of living snails in his aquaria or of those in his cabinet collection. 237 MOLLUSCS, VERMES AND HYDROZOA FIG. 178. Transparent African snail, Lymnaa auricularta. Best Aquarium Snails. Experienced aquariists avail themselves of but four species as aquarium scavengers. These are the Planorbes, usually P. trivohis, the larger common species, popularly known in the author's section of the country as the "Ram's horn" or "flat Schuylkill snail;" Viviparus viviparus or "Potomac snail;" Lymn# §^ water mussels. The interior of the valves shows a deli- cate iridescent nacre and the hinge has erect cardinal teeth strengthened by a rib behind the anterior mus- cular impression. It grows to a length of 3 inches, nearly 1 inches broad and 1*4 i ncn thick; and may be found in most large ponds and streams, but is not as long-lived in the aquarium as the foregoing. L. ochraceus, Fig. 186, is variable in form but usually has thin, trans- versely oblong, sub-ovate, translucent, inflated and widely gaping valves, with elevated and almost touching umbones. The color is yellowish- FIG. 185. Lampsilis radiatum. Adult. MOLLUSCS, VERMES AND HYDROZOA FIG. 1 86. Lan. raceus. Adult. brown, finely radiated and zoned with dark olive, and a very dainty rose color or violet tint on the inner side. The cardinal teeth are nearly parallel with the hinge margin and the lateral teeth short and less prominent. It grows to iI/a- inches in length, 2 inches broad and 1 T 4 inch thick, but is usually smaller in proportion. It is a New England species rarely found in the Middle and Western States. L. cariosus, Fig. 187, is also variable in form, has moderately thick inflated ovate or rounded valves, with the prominent umbones placed well towards the anterior end of the hinge, which has a straight narrow margin and a sharp obtuse ridge passing towards the poster- ior tip. The valves are sharply marked with lines of growth and have a smoothly polished surface. The coloris greenish-yellow or light-olive, with rays of bright-green along the upper posterior margin; and the inside a bluish flesh- colored tint. The cardinal teeth are oblique and the laterals short. It grows to a length of 3 inches, the male being 1 3_^ and the female i l ± inches broad and 1 * + inch thick. It is quite generally distributed but most frequently occurs in the Connecticut River and its tributaries. No information is at hand as to its longevity in the aquarium. Anadonta. These mussels reach a considerable size and are usually more ovate in form than any of the foregoing. They have siphonal apertures, toothless hinges and sharply defined umbones. They are difficult to keep alive in smaller aquaria, as their food consist most largely of diatoms and infusoria, but will survive in those of running water or in large properly balanced aquaria having abundant plant life. There are two generally distributed species in the Eastern Atlantic States, both of which grow to large size. A. cataracta, Fig. 188, more generally known as A. fluviatilis, greatly resembles A. cygnia of Europe and has thin transversely sub-oval inflated valves with distinctly outlined umbones, placed well to the anterior end of FIG. 187. Lampsilis cariosus. Adult. 243 MOLLUSCS, VERMES AND HYDROZOA the hinge, which has the margin compressed and considerably curved. The surface is smooth, except at the posterior portion, where it is wrinkled and shows a number of radiations from the upper edge of the umbone. FIG. i Anaaonta cataracta. Adult. The color is a deep clear green, indistinctly radiated with a darker green and brown. On the inside the silvery nacre is tinged with blue and yellow and has a greenish margin. It reaches a large size and may be 4^ inches long, 2^. inches broad and \ l / 2 inch thick, though most of these mussels are about 3 inches long. It usually inhabits ponds and still water and occurs quite generally on the Eastern Atlantic slope. A. implicata, Fig. 189, is a characteristic species with transversely oblong, sub-oval, thick, opaque, strong and heavy valves, almost as thick as broad; having the umbones distinct and usually eroded. It has ridges from the lower posterior edge of the umbone to the angular tip of the posterior edge. The valves are broadest behind the middle; the hinge margin is slightly curved. The outer sur- face is rough with coarse lines of growth, of a yellowish-olive color somewhat darker above, and the FIG - l8 9- ^»*« «?"«• Youn s she11 - lines are marked with a dull brown. Older shells have a delicate salmon or flesh-color and the younger a silvery tint on the inside. It grows to 4 inches long, 2^ inches broad and i 1 /^ inches thick, but average shells are usually about 3 inches long or under. It inhabits ponds and still water throughout the Eastern and Middle States but has a quite general distribution. This mussel is more elongate, narrower and thicker than the foregoing and may be distinguished by its obtuse ridge. The margin is also more convex. 244 MOLLUSCS, VERMES AND HYDRO'/OA Margaritana. This genus of the Unionidae may be found in most running streams of fresh water, and has the valves transversely elongated, inequilateral, and the hinge differs from the Unios, with which some of the species have been classed by Conchologists. M. margaritifera, Fig. 190, has the ovate or kidney-shaped thick and strong valves transversely much elongated, with the umbones but slightly raised above the line of the hinge and usually much eroded; and the hinge FIG. 190. Margaritana margaritifera. Adult. and basal margin nearly as broad before as behind the hinge, wnich is usually curved and nearly parallel, with the tips slightly truncated. The surface is waved with lines of growth and loosely wrinkled posteriorly and towards the margin. The outside is pitchy-black, the inside has a green- ish border at the margin while the nacre is bluish-white shading to flesh- color in the centre of the valves. There are two cardinal teeth in the left valve and one in the right. The mussel is 4 1 ? inches long, 1 inches broad and 1 x 4 inches thick, probably the largest freshwater mussel of the Atlantic slope, very generally distributed in the Eastern and Middle States. M. marginata, Fig. 191, has thin-ovate, anteriorly wedge-shaped valves with small but elevated umbones, usually somewhat eroded. The posterior hinge margin declines abruptly to form a rounded tip and a well- defined ridge extends from the um- bone to the lower forward edge and the valves show rounded wrinkles and well-defined lines of growth. The color is a polished olive-green mot- tled with lighter and darker shades and having broken or obscure radiat- FIG. 191. Margaritana marginata. Nearly adult. J,-,g They are parasitic on both fishes and mussels, Hydrachna geographica. j J l Enlarged. and ,are frequent external freshwater parasites, easily detected by their size. The largest and most widely distributed form is H. geographica, Fig. 234, while H. globosa and H. triangularis are also frequently occurring species. 274 CHAPTER XII. Aquarium Construction, Tools and Appliances AQUARIUM CONSTRUCTION In the construction of an aquarium the first consideration should be the comfort of the animal inmates, then the production of a pleasing form, with sufficient strength to insure against leaks or breaking of the glass by the water pressure. This latter, as previously mentioned, frequently occurs with all-glass aquaria, and has led to the more general adoption of brass and iron-framed aquarium tanks. Aquarium Proportions. Surface aeration being necessary to the survival of all forms of aquatic life, the aquarium should be constructed to have large surface dimensions, greater than the depth of the water; even >- IOIN. . l / 2 inches in length and 5^ inches in breadth. Its habitat is similar to the above, but does not occur below the New England States. It lives a more exposed existence and is rarely concealed among the rocks. Panopeus herbstii> (Edw.), the most common and largest of the Mud Crabs, is dark-olive above and yellowish-white below the carapace, and has the large claws black, tipped with lighter color. The largest measure 2 inches across the carapace and range from Massachusetts to Brazil. Other smaller Mud Crabs are P. depressus, P. sayi and P. harrisii, all ranging along the Middle Atlantic coast as far south as Florida. Platyonichus ocellatus, (Lat.), or Ladv Crab, Sand Crab, has a 2^2 to 3 inches carapace, nearly as long as broad, the form roughly suggesting a six-sided figure. The lateral margins bear five spines or teeth and the front limbs and claws are long and somewhat slender. The color is dingy- white and the back is covered with red and purple spots. It frequents the sand of low-water marks and exposed beaches buried to the eyes, and feeds on smaller living and dead animals. It is a common feature of the sea beach. Found from northern New England to Florida, from low- water marks to ten fathoms. Ocypoda arenaria, (Rath.), or Sand Crab, Ghost Crab, is a small shore crab about 1 inch long, 1 y 2 inch broad and 1 inch thick. The carapace folds down between the eyes, which are prominent on the long peduncles. It burrows in the sand in holes often three feet deep and is very quick in its movements when disturbed. It has the habit of raising itself on its feet and moving the eyes in its desire to see approaching enemies and prey. The 308 MARINE AQUARIA colors are almost exactly those of the sand and the coarsely granulated carapace appears like a little mound of wet sand. Common from Long Island to Brazil, and subsists largely on Beach fleas, upon which it springs by a sudden movement of the legs. Menippe mercenaria, (Say), the Stone Crab, is a frequently occurring Southern torm not present on more northern shores. Libinia emarginata, (Leach), or Common Spider Crab, or Sea Spider, has the whole surface of the body covered with hairs, matted with mud and algae. The carapace is nearly round and the limbs have a thick gran- ulated covering. The legs are long and slender and the claws short and weak. The males are larger than the females and often have a spread of 12 inches. It hides in the mud and decaying weeds and is sluggish in movement. Common from Maine to Florida. A second species,/., dubia, closelv resembles the above, but its range is more to the north. Lambrus Pourtalesii, (Say), or Long-armed Spider Crab, has a thick roughly spined, almost pear-shaped i r 2 inches broad carapace, very long, heavy, roughly granular and spined 3 inches long forelimbs with very short claws. Lives among rocks, which it closely resembles, and ranges from Cape Cod to Florida. Hyas coarc/atus, (Say), or Toad Crab, inhabits both shallow and deep water, its name being derived from the repulsive appearance of the car- apace and the size of the body, which resembles a toad. The legs are slender and the claws short and weak. Common along the Atlantic coast. Eupagurus po/Iicaris, (Stimp.), or Hermit Crab, Soldier Crab, lives in shallow water and protects its soft hinder portion in empty Gasteropod shells, which it carries with it by holding fast with the hooklike end of the body. Found from Massachusetts to Florida. Three other Middle Atlantic coast species are E. pubescens, E. bernhardus and E. longicarpus, all of similar form and habits. These crabs make interesting aquarium in- mates and thrive best when they can come on rocks above the surface. Gelasimus minax, (Uca minax), ( Le Conte), or Common Fiddler Crab, abounds in almost every saltwater and brackish marsh and estuary. The males are provided with unequal claws, the larger of which is likened to a a fiddle and the smaller to the bow. The claws of the female are of equal size. They congregate in numbers and excavate holes in mud banks above the reach of the tides, to which they scamper when disturbed. Two other very similar species, G. pugnax and G. pugi/ator, also occur from New England to Florida. Of these the one described is the larger. Associated with the Fiddler another crab, Sesarma reticulata^ the Brown Shore Crab, will often be found. It is reddish-brown in color and has 3°9 MARINE AQUARIA stout claws of nearly equal size. In form it very nearly resembles the Fiddler. Pinnotheres ostreum, (Say), or Oyster Crab, of which the female lives parasitically in the gill cavity of the oyster and the smaller male leads a free existence on or near oyster beds, are very unlike in appearance; the male having a firm carapace, dark-brown above with a central dorsal stripe and two white spots, and white below, with white legs and yellowish claws ; and the thin-shelled female has a transparent whitish color tinged with pink ; the carapace of the adult female being about x / 2 inch broad and a little less in length. Occurs from Massachusetts to South Carolina. Pinnotheres maculatum^ (Say), or Scallop Crab, occurs in the shells of some Sea Mussels and Scallops and attains somewhat larger size than the foregoing. The female only is parasitic, the smaller male usually lives among seaweeds and on the mud bottoms. Occurs most generally along the New England coast. Hippa talpoida, (Say), or Sand Bug, has an oval body about half as long as broad, the sides forming a nearly regular curve, giving to the ani- mal a buglike appearance. The tail is carried under the body and the eyes are placed on long peduncles. The color is translucent yellowish- white, overlaid with a purplish tinge on the back, sometimes mottled. Ranges from Cape Cod to Florida, and is known to fishermen as the Bait-bug. Limulus polyp/iemus, (Lat.), or King Crab, Horseshoe Crab, though not a true crab and belonging to the order Xiphosura, should be here de- scribed, as some naturalists regard it as a low type of Crustacean, while others place it among the Arachnida. It has a very large carapace termi- nating in a spine at the posterior angle on both sides, a small abdomen with a long, tapering spine at its end. The basal portion of the legs serve as masticating organs. It is slothful in its habits and is usually buried in the mud and sand in the shallow water of estuaries and along the shore, feeding upon various smaller animals. Its range is from Maine to Florida, and is abundant along the shores of the Delaware Bay. Very small specimens have survived for long periods in aquaria. Crabs as Scavengers. Crabs are voracious feeders and will attack their own species and most of the other living inmates of the aquarium. Only small specimens should be introduced, which serve as excellent scavengers. Homarus americanus, (M-E.), the American Lobster, is one of the most important food invertebrates, and has the body made up of two sec- tions. The anterior portion, consisting of the head and thorax, is covered with a carapace, and the posterior portion or abdomen is covered with six 310 MARINE AOUARIA segments and a terminal flap or telson. Below the carapace there are five segments corresponding to the pairs of legs, of which the anterior pair bear the claws. Each segment of the abdomen has a pair of appendages on the lower side, the swimmerets, and the telson has two larger ones termi- nating in two broad plates. The eyes are on two short movable ped- uncles and there are two long and two short antennae or feelers. The American Lobster is variable in color, usually darker green and bluish on the carapace with the under side and the limbs of a lighter color; that of the adult is usually a greenish black, but the color depends upon the character of the bottom which it inhabits. Its range is from Labrador to Delaware and Virginia, but it occurs most numerously from Massa- chusetts northward, as it prefers a rocky and gravelly bottom covered with a growth of the larger seaweeds. Of the Atlantic species there are but two varieties, known to fishermen as the School Lobster and the Rock Lobster. One other species, Panulirus interruptus, (Rand.), also classified as Senex interruptus^ the California Spring Lobster, is a smaller form, rang- ing southward from California, and is similar to the European P. vulgar us. Shrimps and Prawns. These animals have compressed bodies and soft carapaces with the abdomen large in comparison with the combined head and thorax. The difference between the Shrimps and Prawns is not well defined, as they are nearly related forms. In France they are known as Crevettes and in Germany as Garnellen. Crangon vulgaris^ (Fabr.), or Common Sand Shrimp, reaches a length of two inches, and varies in color with the character of its habitat, from pale translucent grey, to resemble the surface upon which it lives, to darker colors and mottlings on a muddy bottom. It secretes itself so that only the eves and antennae are visible, and buries itself when disturbed. Abounds from Labrador to North Carolina between tide-marks, princi- pally on weedy bottoms. B. franciscorum is the California species. Pen^eus seliferus, (M-E.), the largest Southern Shrimp of the mar- kets, ranges from Charleston, S. C, south. P. brasiliensis is another form from the same locality. Squilla empusa, (Say.), or Mantis Shrimp, is a larger deepwater species belonging to the Squillidae, and is similar to the Squilla of Europe. It somewhat resembles the lobster and is 6 to 10 inches in length. Its range is from Cape Cod to Florida, and is rarely found near the shore. Paltemonetes vulgaris^ (Stimp.), or Common American Prawn, is usu- ally one inch long, but reaches a length of i^ inches, and occurs abun- dantly along the Middle Atlantic coast. The body is almost colorless and transparent, marked by irregular spots and blotches of grey and brown. It is the " bait " shrimp of the angler, and inhabits both salt and 3" MARINE AOUARIA brackish water, preferably on a muddy bottom; and is abundant in calm weather in pools and ditches among vegetation, and about piles and other submerged woodwork. It is a very good aquarium scavenger; also serv- ing as food for the fishes and other inmates. Pandalus borealis^ (Kroyer), or Deep Water Prawn, is a 6 to 7 inch long species which never approaches the shore. Two other forms, P. montagni and P. prepinquus, also inhabit deep water having abundant vege- tation. Cirripedia. These Crustaceans include the Barnacles and similar forms everywhere plentiful in salt and brackish water. A few of the larger forms attached to a plant or stone may be introduced into the aquarium, but should be under careful observation, as they do not usually survive. The most common are Balanus eburneus, or Black Barnacle, Sea-acorn ; B. ba/anoides, or Ivory Barnacle, common on the Atlantic coast on most submerged woodwork, either fixed or floating, and B. crenatus y a parasitic form attached to crabshells, stones, etc. The larger B. tintinabulum^ and Lepas fascicularis, or Goose Barnacle, are found attached to the bottoms of vessels that have come from warmer latitudes. Marine Entomostraca. The order Crustacea also includes those of minute size, Water-fleas which are both free-swimming and parasitic. They form a considerable part or the food of fishes and other marine an- imals and need no further mention here. Amphipoda. These forms are numerous on all beaches; the most generally distributed are: Orchestia agilis, (Smith), or Beach Flea, Sand Hopper, which occurs in countless numbers on every beach. When disturbed it hops by means of the three pairs of abdominal legs and buries itself in the sand. In color it resembles the sandy shore, and is ^ inch and less in length. Another form Talorchestia lingiconis, is similar to the above. Gammarus locusta^ (Lat.), also resembles the above but is larger and lives in the water under stones and among the weeds. The colors are uncertain and variable. Caprella geometrica, (Lat.), or Skeleton Shrimp, is a small and curi- ous amphipod, so slender as to appear like a skeleton adhering to the seaweeds. It is about ^ inch long and moves like a measuring-worm. Will survive in the aquarium. There are a number of Boring Amphipods which do not require mention here. Isopoda. This numerous class is widely distributed and is frequently found on marine plants. The most general form is: 3 IZ MARINE AQUARIA Cirolena concluirum, (Lat.), having a rounded segmental body and seven pairs of short legs. It is found swimming in shallow water among plants from Cape Cod to South Carolina, and is rarely over J 2 inch long. Four other smaller and larger Isopods need no further mention. All are of similar form and habits. Mollusca. Of the Marine Mollusca it is proposed to mention only a few of the shallow-water Middle Atlantic coast species most likely to be found by the collector, as there are so many hundreds of genera and thousands of species that space will permit of their being only superfi- cially treated. Univalves. The most common Limpets, Periwinkles and Whelks, are: Acn breadth 4^ in., elevation 2^ in., length of plastron 5^ in. It is entirely a land animal, found generally in the New England and Mid- dle States and south. Gopherus polyphemus (Daud.), or Gopher Turtle, has a depressed, flattened carapace and thick plastron prolonged beyond the shell in front; a short, thick and obtuse head, serrated jaws with horny plates, short neck 34+ TERRARIA AND AQUA-TERRARI A and granular skin. The fore-legs are large and thick, with five digits and thick strong nails; the hind-legs are short, thick and clavate, with four digits and strong nails. The tail varies somewhat in length. The general coior of the carapace is brownish-yellow clouded with dark brown, and the plastron a dirty yellow. Length of shell [4^ in. and plastron \2 l 4 in. Found in the pine woods as far north as the Carolinas and lives in burrows like the VVoodchuck or Ground Hog; feeding on plants, vegetable matter, worms and grubs. Clemmxs insculptus (Le Conte), or Wood Tortoise, has an oval emar- ginate carapace and an oblong smaller plastron. The head is large and elongated; the upper jaw emarginate in front and notched to form two cutting teeth ; the lower jaw having a strong hook. The fore-legs are the larger and have five digits with short, strong and slightly curved nails, the hind-legs broad with five digits and four nails. The tail is long, thick at the base and slender at the end. The color of the carapace is brown, marked with radiating black lines and concentric striae of yellowish color. The head and limbs are dull cinnibar-red and the plastron yellow with large black blotches at the margins. Length of carapace 8 in., breadth 5 in. j elevation 1V+ in. Found throughout entire States east of Ohio, in woods and fields, sometimes in or near water. It is very restless and con- stantly in motion. Clemmys muhlenbergi (Schw.), or Muhlenberg's Tortoise, has an oblong arched and slightly carinate carapace and oblong plastron. The head is short and broad with pointed snout, the jaws strong, the upper notched with a short hook and the lower with a nearly straight cutting edge. The limbs are like those of the Box Turtle, and the tail large, nearly conical, thick at the base and pointed at the end. The color ot the smooth carapace is dark brown, with the plates relieved with dull yel- low and pale brown, and the plastron is almost black at the margins and yellow in the middle. Its principal character is the large orange spot at each side of the head, encircling the eyes. Found in small brooks and running water of Pennsylvania and New Jersey and adjoining States. Clemmys gut at tus (Schn.), or Speckled Tortoise, has an ovoid, more or less flattened, smooth carapace and large oval plastron. The head is short, smooth and rather pointed ; the upper jaw emarginate in front, and the lower jaw notched to form a rounded hook. The forelegs are short and the five digits slightly webbed with long slender nails ; the hind-legs short with five digits and four nails. The tail is long and slightly com- pressed, tapering to a point. The color of the carapace, head and limbs is black, dotted with orange spots, and the upper surface of the tail red- dish, spotted with brown. This Tortoise may be found in ponds, brooks 345 TERRARIA AND AQUA-TERRARIA and rivers, where it lives on smaller animals, tadpoles, young frogs, fishes, etc., and sometimes on land, when it lives on earthworms, snails, grass- hoppers, crickets, etc. It is abundant in the eastern section of the United States, and west to Indiana. Chrysemyspicta(H.erm.),or Painted Turtle, Checkered Turtle, has a sub- oval, smooth, flattened carapace and broad, oblong plastron, nearly equal in length with the shell. The head is small and rounded in front with an ob- tuse snout. The upper jaw is entire at the sides, notched in front, and the lower jaw is slightly hooked and turned upward in front. The fore-legs are long and the five digits have short nails; the hind-legs are flattened at the tarsus with five digits and four nails. The tail is moderately long and narrow. The fine markings of the carapace are greenish-black with the plates outlined in yellow, the marginal plates lighter and marked with bright red. The plastron is bright yellow, and the head and neck above are almost black, with yellow lines, and veined below in black and yellow. Length of carapace 6j4 in., breadth 4^ in., elevation 2j4 in. Found in ditches, ponds and rivers of almost the entire United States; one of the most common turtles, usually to be had of dealers. Kinosternon pennsy hank urn (Bosc), or Mud Turtle, has a slightly flat- tened, oval and smooth carapace, with an oval, rounded shorter plastron. The head is large, rather pointed at the snout, and the jaws very strong, both furnished with a hook on the front of the cutting edges. The neck is long and slender and the fore-legs short, rounded and covered with a warty skin, and having five digits with short nails ; the hind-legs short, flattened at the tarsus, and having five digits with four nails. The tail is short, thick at the base, pointed, and horny at the end. The color of the carapace is dusky-brown and that of the plastron variable, usually of a yel- lowish color. The head is dark, flecked with yellowish spots. Length of carapace 4 in., breadth 23/£ in., elevation i3/£ in. Found from New York to Florida. Aromochelys odoratus (Latr.), or Stink-pot, Musk Turtle, is very simi- lar to the foregoing, but may be distinguished by the carapace having more distinct plates with sharper edges and traces of a keel. It has a re- pulsive, strong and musky odor. Length of carapace 6 in., breadth \V^ in., elevation \l/± to 2 in. Found abundantly in the waters of the East- ern States and west to Illinois. Aspidonectes spinifer (Le S.), or Common Soft-shelled Turtle, has a very much flattened, leathery, smooth sub-oval carapace and flat plastron. The head is large, broad and rounded behind and so much pointed in front as to form a prolonged cylindrical snout. The carapace is marked front and back with a number of raised tubercles and the plastron is larger 346 TERRARIA AND AOUA-TERRARIA than the carapace. The jaws have strong cutting margins, the lower fit- ting within the upper. The fore-legs are somewhat long, with five digits and long nails, and the hind-legs broad with five digits and four nails. The tail is short and blunt. The color of the carapace is umber-brown with dark spots and patches, and the translucent plastron white marked with waving blood-vessels. The head and neck are striped, and the legs and digits mottled. Length of carapace 12 in., breadth 10 j4 in., eleva- tion llA in., and occasionally larger. Found in the Great Lakes and Mississippi Valley and has been introduced into the Delaware River. It is voracious and feeds upon fishes and other animals. Chelydra serpentina (Linn.), or Common Snapping Turtle, has a sub- quadrilateral, deeply emarginate and serrated carapace, and an anteriorly rounded posteriorly pointed plastron. The head is very large, broad be- hind, flattened above with a short pointed snout, and strong jaws with sharp cutting edges and both upper and lower hooks. The neck is long, and the legs large, with five digits and strong nails. The tail is very long, thick at the base and tapering to a pointed tip. The color of the carapace is dusky brown, the plastron yellowish-grey, and the head and limbs dark brown with black spots. Length 25 inches. Found abundantly in streams and ponds everywhere from Maine to Florida. Malaclemmys centrata (Latr.), or Diamond-back Terrapin, Salt-marsh Turtle, has a smooth oval, almost entire carapace, sub-oval plastron, and a very large head posteriorly broad with a pointed snout. The jaws are strong, with the upper slightly emarginate and the lower curved in front with a slight hook. The neck is short and thick; the fore-legs moderately long and the hind-legs short, both having short and strong nails. The tail is short, thick at the base, pointed at the tip and has a sharp ridge. The colors of the carapace are variable, generally a dusky brown, some- times greenish or dark olive, rarely black. The plates are usually yellowish-brown, each with concentric dark stripes and lines to form a pattern, the name being derived from these markings. Length of cara- pace 9 inches, plastron % X A inches, elevation 3 inches. Found in saltwater and salt and brackish marshes from New York to Texas; once plentifully, now almost exterminated. It is valued as food and is considered a delicacy. Pseudemys rubriventris (Lee), or Red-bellied Terrapin, has an elon- gated oval, smooth carapace, an oblong plastron, and a moderate sized head, enlarged posteriorly with a slightly pointed snout. The jaws are strong, with the upper cutting edge so deeply emarginated as to appear to have two teeth, the lower serrated at the sides with three emarginated processes like teeth in front, the central a hook. The fore-legs are rather long, the hind-legs shorter, both having strong digits with short, slightly 347 TERRARIA AND AQUA-TERRARIA curved nails. The tail is short, thick at the base and suddenly pointed. The color of the carapace is dusky brown with irregular red markings on and around the plates, the plastron red, clouded with a dusky shade. The head and neck are dark brown above with obscured red lines, and the legs and tail dusky brown and black, also marked with red. Length of cara- pace 1 1 in., breadth 7 in., elevation 4^ in. Found in brackish and fresh- water from New Jersey to Virginia. Under the name of "Slider," it is largely used as a substitute for the Diamond-back Terrapin. Another form of the same genus, P. troosti (Hoi.), or Yellow-bellied Terrapin, of the Mississippi Valley, does not occur in the Eastern or Middle States, but may be sometimes found in the markets, as it is also used as food. Sea Turtles. These Turtles are all of very large size and are occa- sionally taken in the more northern latitudes, coming in the Gulf Stream from the South. They are Dermochelys coriacea (Vand.) or Leather-Tur- tle, one of the largest Sea Turtles, reaching a length of 6 to 8 feet and a weight of 1200 pounds; Thalassochelys caretta (Linn.), or Logger-head Turtle, 3 to 6 feet in length and weighing 350 to 450 pounds; Eretmochelys imbricata (Linn.), or Hawks-bill Turtle, the carapace of which is the valued turtle-shell of commerce; and Chelonia my das (Linn.), or Green Turtle, valued as food, with a carapace of 3 to 4 feet and a weight of 850 pounds. These may occasionally be seen in the larger public aquaria. Feeding in the Terrarium. A variety of food is necessary for the requirements of reptiles and amphibia. Frogs, Toads and Tree Toads require insects, worms, grubs, particles of meat and fish; Salamanders and Newts, snails, minced mussels or oysters, meat, fish and fish eggs; Lizards and Snakes, insects, worms, grubs and small live animals; Alligators and Snapping Turtles, tadpoles, crayfish, minnows, other small animals, and worms and grubs, and when these cannot be obtained, minced fish, oysters, meat, etc.; and Land Turtles should also receive snails, mussels, insects and garden vegetables, lettuce, celery, tomato, berries and mushrooms. Feeding should be carefully done and anything not eaten should be removed before it decays. 348 CHAPTER XV. Don'ts for Beginners, Aquarium Societies, Bibliography, Glossary, etc. DON'TS FOR BEGINNERS Don't, as a novice, begin with a large aquarium; one of 10 to 12 gallons is sufficiently large. Don't, except as a hospital or temporary receptacle, use the ordinary fish globe. Don't use all-glass receptacles as permanent aquaria, they are too liable to fracture. Don't use an aquarium greater in depth of water than in width. Don't handle an aquarium until the cement has "set" or become hardened. Don't arrange an aquarium until it is thoroughly cleaned on the inside. Don't clean the glass with anything but table salt when filled, or with whiting when empty. Don't move a filled aquarium ; first decant most or all of the water. Don't move an all-glass aquarium at any time; lift it clear and set it down gently in its new place. Don't change the water when moving an aquarium; keep it in another vessel and afterwards return it, filling in with fresh water. Don't needlessly disturb the aquarium and its contents. Don't place the aquarium in a strong sunlight if a good steady light may be had elsewhere. Don't forget that a northeast exposure is the best, and light on the surface better than strong side-light. Don't exclude the free access of air to the surface by tightly covering the aquarium. Don't keep the glass too free of healthy algas, except on the front. Don't use unclean vessels or appliances of any kind. Don't fail to exercise the most scrupulous cleanliness with everything per- taining to the aquarium. Don't permit the accumulation of refuse, of any kind, on the bottom. Don't put the hand into the filled aquarium, when this can be avoided. Don't have more than one person in charge of the aquarium. Don't fail to give it a little attention every day; this soon becomes a habit and will insure success. Don't use deep, narrow or funnel-shaped nets nor those of coarse knotted twine; use shallow ones of soft Brussels netting. Don't use the same net, or any other appliance, for sick and healthy fishes ; this is sure to spread the contagion. Scald the net frequently. Don't fail to place a screen between the aquarium and the light on warm summer days, especially strong sunlight. Tissue paper or cheese cloth will answer the purpose. 35i DON'TS FOR BEGINNERS Don't expect success except when the aquarium is well conditioned or balanced, with ample growing plants and a good light. Don't fail to remember that the plant life should exceed the animal life and scavengers be present. There can scarcely be too many health- growing plants in the aquarium. Don't place fishes into an aquarium until the plants are well established, but introduce scavengers at once. Don't change the water needlessly, its appearance and taste is the best guide. Don't occasion sudden changes in the temperature of the water. Don't forget that colder water will sustain more fishes than when it becomes warmer. Don't, as a novice, begin with fine fishes; the ordinary goldfishes are more hardy than the finely bred toy varieties. Don't, when no longer a novice, be contented with the common goldfishes ; the inexpensive " sports'' of the finer breeds are more interesting. Don't needlessly frighten the fishes ; kind treatment will make them very tame. Don't jar the aquarium or rap on the glass; fishes have finely organized nervous systems. Guard against even the most unintentional cruel- ties. Don't handle fishes roughly ; bruises and the loss of the mucus covering of the scales become seats for fungus diseases. Don't place large fishes in small aquaria, nor keep large and small fishes in the same receptacle, if avoidable. Don't keep fishes together which molest each other. Don't keep diseased fishes with healthy ones; remove them to a hospital jar for treatment. Don't buy fishes and plants promiscuously ; be sure that they are clean and free from infection. Don't immediately introduce newly acquired fishes or plants into an es- tablished aquarium; keep them for some time in a separate receptacle, until fully assured that they are in perfect condition. This is a fre- quent cause of infection. Don't starve the fishes, but be even more careful not to overfeed them. Feed more sparingly in winter than in summer. Don't fail to remember that mistaken kindnesses kill as many fishes as neglect or inexperience. Don't feed more than the fishes will eat at once; they may only masticate the food and later eject it to contaminate the water. 352 DON'TS FOR BEGINNERS Don't overfeed; very many of the ills of aquarium fishes are due to this mistaken kindness. Don't leave uneaten food or offal in the aquarium. Use the dipping tube. Don't feed worms without first cleaning them; they are carriers of both parasites and fungus diseases. Scalding them is a good method. Don't overstock the aquarium at any time; until it is fully established the one safe rule is not more than one fish for every two or three gal- lons of water; even fewer large fishes. Don't fail to get a large aquarium as soon as you become expert; the larger the tank, the surer the results. Don't, as a novice, keep other fishes with the goldfish ; they may not be altogether harmless. Don't keep water bugs and beetles in the aquarium with fishes ; they are all harmful and predatory. Don't introduce plant-eating snails as scavengers. The Planorbes and Vivipara are the best common snaiis. Don't feel discouraged by occasional reverses ; they happen to every one, even to the most experienced aquariists. Don't fail to remember that success with the aquarium depends upon the following prime conditions; inattention to any of these, or mistakes or neglect, will certainly lead to failure : — i. Cleanliness of the vessel and all appliances. A good and strong light. A vigorous growth of plants. Careful feeding of the proper food. The immediate removal of sick or doubtful fishes. Ample scavengers. Avoidance of overstocking. Persistence, determination to succeed, and a considerable good fortune. Don't fail to join an Aquarium Society; if none exists, organize one. Don't disregard any of the precepts of this volume; they are based on tried experience. Don't fail to frequently review these Don ts^ and confer with authorities if in serious difficulties ; the Aquarium Society of Philadelphia will be pleased to answer all inquiries. These Don'ts apply more particularly to the Freshwater aquarium, but it may be beneficial to keep most of them in mind for the Marine aquarium, Terrarium and Aqua-terrarium as well. 353 AQUARIUM SOCIETIES AQUARIUM SOCIETIES Europeans apparently interest themselves more in the study of Natural History than Americans. The middle and more educated classes devote much of their leisure to pursuits which take them far afield for healthful exercise, agreeable diversion from the cares of business and every day ex- istence, and pleasant mental occupation. This particularly applies to the Germans, their elementary schools devoting considerable attention to sub- jects which foster in the minds of the children a desire for information and research. The beginning of the pursuit may be some chance animal or plant noticed during a ramble and taken to the home, there to awaken a desire for further information of its habits. This interest then grows and often culminates in the establishment of a household collection of animals and plants, sometimes far in advance of what would satisfy the more practical-minded citizen of the United States. The outcome of this desire for a glimpse of nature in the household is a very large number of popular societies devoted to various branches of nature study, among them many Aquarium Societies. Every larger citv of Germany has one or more of these of which the best-known are: Verband der Aquarien und Terrarien Freiinde, Berlin. Verein fur Aquarienfreiinde, Berlin. Triton, Berlin. Elodea, Berlin-Moabit. Nymphae alba, Berlin. Lotus, Vienna. Humboldt, Hamburg. Salvinia, Hamburg. Nymphaea, Leipzig. Wasserrose, Dresden. Isis, Munich. Sagittaria, Koeln. Hottonia, Darmstadt. Ulva, Kiel. Heros, Niirnberg. Tausendblatt, Plauen i. V. Vallisneria, Magdeburg. Nerthus, Braunschweig. Brehm, Gelsenkirchen. Aquaria, Zwickau. Verein fur Volkstumliche Naturkunde, Stettin. Verein fur Aquarien und Terrarienkunde, Dortmund, and others. 354 AQUARIUM SOCIETIES Four or more periodicals are published under the auspices of these Societies, a weekly, two fortnightly and a monthly; devoted to pop- ular zoological, ichthyological and botanical study and the elucidation of subjects of interest to their members. A Society of this kind has been established in Philadelphia since 1898, and has accomplished much to popularize the aquarium, its inhab- itants and its maintenance. To encourage this both interesting study and beautifier of the home, some descriptions of this Society and its proceed- ings will be of interest. The Aquarium Society of Philadelphia, on January 1, 1908, had 128 active members, a number of which reside in neighboring cities. Its purpose is more particularly the propagation of the finer breeds of the goldfish and the keeping of freshwater aquaria. The sessions occur monthly, except June, July and August. Set topics of interest are dis- cussed, exhibitions take place, prizes are awarded and inquiries from any source are invited and answered. Points for the Judgment of Goldfishes. Authorities differ some- what in the standards for judging goldfishes in prize competitions and as as to their respective merits as fine specimens. Dr. E. Bade, one of the best-known German ichthyologists, advocates the following scales in awards: Japanese Fringetail Goldfish A long body would, for instance, take from the merit of the fish as many as 30 points and would in no case permit of over 70 points in its favor, or should the anal fin be single, its merit would not be over 95 points. If the body is not sufficiently rotund, but short and otherwise acceptable, then its merit as to body would be expressed by not over 20 to 25 points, and so with the other details of the fish. For the Chinese Telescope goldfish he advocates the standard of: Body Caudal fin Pectoral Dorsal and fin Ventral fins Double anal fins Color. Scaled or Transparent- ly Scaled Points 30 20 20 20 5 5 j IOO Body Eyes Caudal Dorsal fin fin Pectoral and Double Ventral anal fins fins Color. Scaled or Transparent- ly Scaled Points 30 30 IO IO 10 5 5 IOO 355 AQUARIUM SOCIETIES Merit as to eyes is dependent upon their size and shape, as well as uniformity of size and equal projection from the head. The larger the eves the higher the points in favor of the fish. Fig. 17 will explain the different forms of eyes, and this authority claims that the ovoid and conical are valued the highest and should be awarded the maximum number of points. The Aquarium Society of Philadelphia has set a slightly different standard, the judging being for general conformation, eye and fin develop- ment rather than for color. Comets Nymphs Single-tailed Telescopes, as a separate class Fringetails Fantails Mottled Telescopes Moor Telescopes Variagated Telescopes, (other than the two above) Celestial Telescopes. Color Eyes Body Caudal fins Other fins Points 2 5 50 2 5 IOO 40 35 2 5 IOO 40 35 2 5 IOO 3S 40 2 5 IOO 35 40 25 IOO 35 2 5 15 15 10 IOO 3° 30 20 10 10 IOO 35 2 5 20 20 IOO 30 3° 20 20 IOO Scaled and Transparently-scaled fishes are also judged in separate classes, and highly colored fishes preferred to white or uncolored ones. As absolute perfection in every particular has not yet been reached in any goldfish, modifications of the above standards are necessary in judging goldfish breeds, and though none may reach the standard of 100 points, the relative value of fishes in competitions may be arrived at by either of the above tables. It is left to the reader to decide how many points a fish of the conformation of the outline half-life-sized drawing, Fig. 240, should receive in a competition. It is needless to say that few have seen so highly meritor- FIG. 240. Outline of a fine Frineetail ■ T7 * ^ * I — ijh L Goldfish, half life size. lous a Fnngetail goldfish. 356 ENCLOSED AO.UA-TERRARIUM First prize awarded by the Triton Society, Berlin. GLOSSARY GLOSSARY Glossary of Scientific Terms used in this work Abdomen Belly Abdominal Pertaining to the belly Abortive Remaining or becoming imperfect Acuminate Tapering gradually to a point Acute Sharp-pointed Adipose Fleshv Air-bladder A sac filled with air, lying near the backbone of fishes ; the swimming-bladder Alevin The newly hatched of fishes still attached to the umbilical sac Alternate Opposite Anal Pertaining to the anus or vent Anal fin The fin behind the vent, in fishes Anus The exterior opening of the intestines ; the vent Arterial bulb The muscular swelling at the base of the great artery, in fishes Articulate Jointed Atrophy Non-development Attenuate Drawn out; long and slender Axillary In the hollow where a branch unites with the plant Auricle One of the chambers of the heart Barbel An elongated projection at the head, in fishes Basal At or near the base Bifurcated Forked; divided into two branches Bracts Small leaves or scales Branchiae Gills; respiratory organs of fishes Branchial Pertaining to the gills Branchiostegals Bony rays below the opercular bones under the heads of fishes Byssus Tuft of threads, in molluscs Caecum An appendage connected with the alimentary canal Calcareous Containing or composed of carbonate of lime Calyx Cup or outer covering of a flower Capillaries Hairlike vessels in animals and plants Capsule A seed pod Carapace A shell; the upper shell of a turtle, the covering of crustaceans Cardinal Teeth near the beak, in molluscs Carinate Keeled; having a ridge along the middle line Caudal Pertaining to the tail Caudal fin The fin constituting the tail of fishes Cilia Hairlike projections Ciliated Fringed; having hairlike projections Cinereous Having the color of wood ashes Clavate Club-shaped Concentric Having a common centre Conchology Science of shells Cuneate Wedge-shaped Cycloid Smooth-edged and circular 357 GLOSSARY Cyprinida- Fishes included in the families of Minnows, Carps, Chubs, Dace, Breams, Tench, Ides, Goldfishes, Gudgeons, Shiners, Barbels, Stone-Rollers, etc., and many among the multitudes of freshwater forms collectively known as Minnys and not distinguishable except by the naturalist from the young of other fishes which they are supposed to be by the laity Depressed Flattened vertically Depth Vertical diameter, of body of fishes and molluscs Dermal Pertaining to the skin Dextral Right-handed Diaphanous Translucent; semi-transparent Diaphragm Muscular septum between the thorax and abdomen Dorsal Pertaining to the back Dorsal fin The fin on the back of fishes Elong-ovate A long egg shape Emarginate Slightly forked; notched at the tip Epidermis The skin Erectile Susceptible of being raised or erected Fascicle A close cluster Fauna The animals inhabiting any region, taken collectively Filament Any slender or threadlike structure Filiform Thread-form Finely dissected Split into fine threads Flora The plants of any region, taken collectively Fry The young fish after the absorption of the umbilical sac Furcate Forked Fusiform Shaped to taper at each end Gemmation Budding Gills Organs for breathing the air contained in water Gill arches The bony arches to which the gills are attached Glabrous Smooth Gonospores Germinating buds Gullet Passage to stomach Haustellated Provided with a sucker Height Vertical diameter Helminth A wormlike animal Hexagonal Six-sided Hypha Rod-like Structures; spore capsules; brood sacs Hyoid Pertaining to the tongue Ichthiology Science of fishes Imbricate Overlapping like shingles Inarticulate Not jointed Infraoral Below the mouth Infraorbital Below the orbits or eyes Inperforate Not pierced through Intermaxillaries Bones forming the middle of the front part of the upper jaw, in fishes Interorbital Space between the eyes Interopercle Membrane bone between the preopercle and the branchiostegals Interspinal Bones in which fin-rays are attached, in fishes Iris Part of eye surrounding the pupil 358 GLOSSARY Irides Plural of iris Keeled Having a ridge along the middle Labial Pertaining to the lips Laminae A thin plate or scale Lance-eliptical A long elipse Lanceolate Oblong, gradually tapers to the outer extremity Larva An immature form Lateral To or towards the side Lateral line The muciferous tubes along the sides of a fish Laterally Sideways Linear Like a line, of the same breadth throughout Littoral Near the shore Longitudinal Running lengthwise Lunate Form of the new moon Mamma- Milk glands, breasts Mammary glands Glands secreting milk Mandible Under jaw Maxilla Upper jaw Maxillaries Outermost bones of the upper jaw, in fishes Maxillipeds Foot-jaws of Crustaceans Metamorphosis A decided change in form Midrib The central or main rib of leaves in plants Mycelium A filamentous body from which a mushroom is developed Naked Without scales Nerves The fine veins in leaves of plants Nodule A rounded mass of irregular shape Nucleus The umbone or beginning of a shell of molluscs Oblique Slanting inclined Obscure Scarcely visible Obsolete Faintly marked; scarcely evident Obtuse Blunt Occiput Back of head Olivaceous Color of the olive Operculum Gill cover in fishes; calcareous lid closing the aperture, in molluscs Orbicular Nearly circular Orbit Eye socket Osseous Bony Ova Eggs Ovum Egg Ovate Shaped like an egg Oviparous Producing eggs which are developed after extrusion from the bodv Ovoviviparous Producing eggs which are developed before extrusion from the bodv Ovoid Shaped like an egg Palmate Web-footed Papillose With pimple-like elevations or tubercles Pectinate Having teeth like a comb Pectoral Pertaining to the breast Pectoral fin The foremost paired fins, in fishes Pediculated The stalk which supports only one flower 359 GLOSSARY Peduncle The supporting stem of a flower or seed Pelagic On or near the high seas Pellucid Clear, admitting light Perforate Pierced through Peristome A cap, or cover of a cup, in plants Persistent Continuing through life Pigment Coloring matter Pinnate Shaped like a feather Pinnatified Divided in a feathery manner Pistillate Having a pistil and no stamens Plastron Lower shell of turtle Plicate Folded; forming folds or wrinkles Plumbeous Lead-colored; dull bluish-grey Poissons French for fishes Prehensile Clasping Protuberance A small excrescence like a pimple Pubis Lower part of the pelvis Pulmonary Pertaining to the lungs Punctate Dotted with points Pupa An immature form ; transformation after the larval stage Pyloric ca?ea Glandular appendage or sac opening into the alimentary canal, in fishes Pylorus The orifice through which food passes out of the stomach Quadrangular Having four angles Quadrilateral Having four sides Ray Cartilaginous rods in the fins, of fishes; arm of a star fish; the star fish Rhizomes A creeping branch or stem Rudimentary Undeveloped Rugose Rough with wrinkles Sagittate Lance or sword-shaped Sepal A leaf or division of the calyx Serrate Notched, like a saw Sessile Without a stem or peduncle Setiform Bristle-like Sinistral Left-handed Soft rays Branched fin-rays Specific gravity A weight which belongs to an equal bulk of each body Spiked A fin in which the main rays extend considerably beyond the tissue or web. A single-rayed fin Spikes Alternated growths on a common stem, in plants Spinous Stiff or composed of spines Stamen Male organ of flowers Stamenate Furnished with stamens Sternum The breast bone Striate Striped or streaked Sub Less than; not quite; under Subulate Awl-shaped Suture A grove or line in snail shells Synonym A different word having the same meaning 360 GLOSSARY Tentacles Feelers Terete Cylindrical and tapering Terminal At the end Tessellated Marked with checks or squares Thoracic Pertaining to the throat Translucent Nearly transparent Transverse Crosswise Trenchant Compressed to a sharp edge Trifurcated Forked; divided into three branches Truncate Abrupt; cut oft" square Tubercle A small excrescence like a pimple, a papilla Tvpical Of" a structure the most usual of" a group Umbilicus The navel Umbone Nucleus of a shell Vent The external opening of" the alimentary canal; anus Ventral Pertaining to the abdomen Ventral fins The paired fins behind the pectoral fins, in fishes Ventrical One of" the walls of the heart Vermes Worms Vertebra One of the bones of the spinal column Vertical Up and down Verticil A small whorl Viscid Sticky Viscous Slimy Viviparous Bringing forth living young Web Membrane connecting the toes; also the fin rays in fishes Whorl Arrangement around a stem in plants; volution or turn of the spire of" a snail 361 BIBLIOGRAPHY BIBLIOGRAPHY Literature cited. The books, papers and miscellaneous publications of which a list is hereto appended, have all been consulted in the original, except those marked with an asterisk. These are based upon abstracts or citations by other authors. A Handbook of Systematic Botany. D. E. Warming, 1895 An Account of the Fish Epidemic in Lake Mendota. S. A. Forbes, 1 890 *Aquaria and Construction. C. E. Driver *Aquaria; Their Construction, &c. W. Saville Kent A Manual for the Study of Insects. J. H. Comstock, 1895 A Manual of Fish Culture. U. S. Com. of Fish and Fisheries, 1900 American Fishes. G. Brown Good, 1888 American Fish Culture. Thaddeus Norris, 1868 Aquatic Insects in the Adirondacks. Jas. G. Needham, 1901 Atlas der Meeresalgen. J. Reinke, 1889 A Report of Work on the Protozoa of Lake Erie. H. S. Jennings, 1900 A Text Book of Entomology. A. S. Packard, M. D., 1898 A Treatise on Zoology. W. B. Benham, 190 1 Bilder aus dem Aquarium. Dr. W. Hess, 1883 Book on the Black Bass. Dr. J. A. Henshall, 1881 Catalogue of the Odonata of North America. P. P. Calvert, 1893 Compendium der Helminthologie. Dr. von Linstovv, 1868 Cyclopedia of American Horticulture. L. H. Bailev, 1900 Das Susswasseraquarium. Dr. W. Hess, 1887 Das Siisswasser- Aquarium. E. A. Roszmaszsler, 1892 Das Susswasseraquarium und Terrarium. A. & G. Ortleb, 1890 Das Thierreich. German Society of Zoologists, 1903 *Der Flusskrebs; Seine Beschreibung und Zucht. O. F. Rank, 1898 Der Goldfisch; Seine Pflege und Zucht. Guido Findeis, 1887 Der Goldfisch. Die Gartenlaube, 1903 Der Schleierschwanz und Telescopschleirschwanz, &c. Dr. E. Bade, 1900 Die Ernahrung des Karpfen und seine Teichgenossen. W. Susta, 1888 Die Kunstliche Fischzucht nach dem neuesten Stande. E. Bade, 1897 Die mikroskopische Thierweld des Siisswassers. F. Blochmann, 1886 Die Mitteleuropaischen Susswasserfische. E. Bade, 1900 *Die Teichwirthschaft. Carl Nicklas, 1897 Die Susswasserfische Deutschlands. M. Nitsche, 1898 Die Thier und Pflanzenwelt des Siisswassers. Dr. Otto Zacharias, 1886 Die Raderthiere und ihre beobachteten Arten. S. Bartsch, 1870 Die Verunreinigung der Gewasser. A. Koenig, 1887 Domesticated Trout. Livingston Stone, 189 I Ein Beitrag zur Parasitenlehre. C. Kerbert, 1884 Entozoa. T. Spencer Cobbold, 1864 Entomological News Feeding and Rearing Fishes, particularly Trout, &c. W m . F. Page, 1895 Fish Culture on the Farm. ]. J. Stranahan in Trans. Am. Fisheries Society, 1902 Fish Hatching and Fish Catching. Seth Green and R. B. Roosevelt, 1870 362 BFBLIOGRAPHV Fish Parasites, collected at Wood's Hole in 1898. Edwin Linton, Ph. D. Flora of the Northern United States. Britton and Brown, 1898 Fresh-water Alga* of the United States. Rev. Francis Wolle, 1887 Fresh-water Alga'. M. C. Cooke, 1890 Fresh-water Aquaria. Rev. G. C. Bateman, 1902 Fremdliindische Zierfische. B. Diiringer, 1902 Fungi Affecting Fishes. Samuel Lockwood, 1890 Fungi, Mycetozoa and Bacteria. A. De Bary, 1887 Gas Bubble Disease of Fishes and Its Cause. F. P. Gorham, A. M., 1900 ^Handbook of the Marine Aquarium. P. H. Gosse, 1855 Histoire Naturelle des Dorades de la Chine. M. de Sauvigni, 1780 Histoire Naturelle des Poissons. M. Lacepede, 1803 Histoire Naturelle des Poissons. M. le B. Cuvier and M. A. Vallencienes, 1842 Histoire Naturelle des Vegetaux Parasites. Charles Robin, 1853 History of the Fresh-water Alga. Horatio C. Wood, M. D., 1873 Ichthiologie. Elieser Bloch, 1784 Inherited Modifications in the Japanese Domesticated Golden Carp, &c. John A. Rfder, 1893 Infusionsthiere als Hautparasiten bei Siisswasserfische. Drs. Helgendorf and Paulicki, 1869 :i: Intensive Teichwirthschaft. S. Jaffe, 1894 Insects; Their Structure and Life. G. H. Carpenter, 1899 Invertebrates of Massachusetts. August A. Gould, 1845 Katechismus fur Aquarienliehhaber. W. Geyer, 1902 Krankheiten der Pflanzen. B. Frank, 188 I Land and Freshwater Shells of North America. W. G. Binnev, 1886 Leitfaden fur Aquarien und Terrarienfreunde. Dr. E. Zernecke, 1897 Les Poissons d'eau douce du Canada. A. N. Montpetit, 1897 Manual of the Infusoria. W. Saville Kent, 1 881-1882 Marine Alga. W. J. Farlow, M. D., 188 1 Marine Aquaria. R. A. R. Bennett, 1889 Modern Fish Culture in Fresh and Salt Water. Fred'k Mather, 1900 *Monographie des Saprolegniees. M. Cornu, 187- Nouveau Memoirs de la Societe des Naturalists de Moscow. M. Basiiewskv, 1855 Notes on American Rotifera. E. L. Herrick, 1898 Notes on Distoma Endemicum. Isoa Ijima, 1885 Notes on Entozoa of Marine Fishes of New England. Edwin Linton, Ph. D., 1895 Notes on Fish Culture in Germany. S. Jaffe, 1895 Notes on the Mosquitoes of the United States. L. O. Howard, 1900 *Notes sur une espece d'Infusores Parasites des Poissons d'eau douce. D. Fouquet, 1876 Notes on Trematode Parasites on Fishes. Edwin Linton, 1898 Notice of the Occurrence of Protozoan Parasites on Fishes in Ohio. Edwin Linton, 1897 Observation on a Fungus infesting the Fish. G. P. Clinton, 1894 Observations on the Aquaria of the United States Fish Commission. William P. Seal, 1890 *On Entomostraca. Emil Weeger, 1890 On the Caudal and Anal ^Fins of Goldfishes. Dr. S. Watasa, 1887 On Some Lake Superior Entomostraca. S. A. Forbes, 1890 Parasites. T. Spencer Cobbold, 1879 Photography of Live Fishes. R. Jrf. Shufeldt, 1899 : ' : Ponular Histnrv of the Armarium G R Smrprhv ^Popular History of the Aquarium. G. B. Sowerbv 363 BIBLIOGRAPHY Practical Carp Culture. L. B. Logan, 1888 Practical Trout Culture. J. H. Slack, 1872 Praxis der Aquarienkunde. Dr. E. Bade, 1899 Proceedings of the Fish-Culture Society, 1880 Report on a Parasitic Protozoan observed on the Fish. C. W. Stiles, 1894 Rotatoria of the United States. H. S. Jennings, 1900 Saprolegniacea; of the United States. Jas. E. Humphreys, 1892 Sea Mosses. A. B. Harvey, 1882 Seaside Studies in Natural History. E. C. & A. Agassiz, 1865 Some Chemical Changes in the Development of the Fish Egg. P. A. Levene, 1900 Some Observations concerning Fish Parasites. Edwin Linton, 1894 Sporozoa. Alphonse Labbe, 1899 Seewasser-aquarien im Zimmer. R. E. Hoffmann, 1900 The Care of Goldfishes. C. H. Townsend in Bulletins of the New York Zoological Society, 1907 The Cultivation of Fishes in Natural and Artificial Ponds. C. H. Townsend, 1907 Studies on Ectoparasitic Trematoda of Japan. Seitaro Goto, 1885 *The American Angler. J. A. Henshall, Vol. Ill The Aquarium; a Brief Exposition of its Principles and Management. Wm. P. Seal, 1887 The Aquarium. Mark Samuels, 1898 *The Aquarium. J. E. Taylor, 1876 *The Aquarium. P. H. Gosse, 1854 The Aquarium as an aid to Biological Research. Wm. P. Seal, 1883 The Aquarium of the U. S. Fish Commission at the World's Columbian Exposition. S. A. Forbes and others, 1894 The Black Bass. Jas. H. Henshall, 1899 *The Book of the Aquarium. Shirley Hibberd The Brook Book. Mary R. Miller, 1902 The Crustacea of the Fresh Waters of the U. S. Sidney Smith, 1872 The Destruction of Trout Fry by Hydra. E. A. Beardsley, 1903 The Family Aquarium or Aqua-vivarium. Henry D. Butler, 1858 The Fishes of Pennsylvania. Tarleton H. Bean, 1893 The Fishes of Pennsylvania. E. D. Cope, 1881 The Fishes of North and Middle America. Jordan and Everman, 1896 The Fish of the Fresh and Brackish Waters in the Vicinity of New York. Eugene Smith, 1897 The Fisheries and Fishery Industries of the United States. Geo. Brown Goode, 1884 *The Fresh and Saltwater Aquarium. Rev. J. G. Wood The Goldfish and Its Culture.' Hugo Mulertt, 1883 The Home Aquarium and How to care for it. Eugene Smith, 1902 *The Home Naturalist. Harland Coultas The Insect Book. Leland O. Howard, 1901 The Myxosporidia of Fishes, &c. Dr. R. R. Gurley, 1888 The Natural History of Plants. A. K. von Marilaun, 1895 The Pearly Freshwater Mussels of the U. S. Chas. T. Simpson, 1899 The Sea-Beach at Ebb-Tide. Augusta F. Arnold, 1901 Transactions of the American Entomological Society The Trematodes. H. S. Pratt. American Naturalist, 1900 and 1902 *Trout Culture. Seth Green, 1870 364 BIBLIOGRAPHY *The Vivarium. Rev. G. C. Bateman, 1893 Uber Aquarien. F. Rossbach, 1875 *Uber die Feinde der Fische. V. La V. St. George, 1879 Untersuchungen uber Peronosporeen und Saprolegnieen. A. De Bary, 188 I Vertebrate Animals of" the Northern United States. David S. Jordan, 1899 Zur Kenntniss Kleiner Lebensfbrmen. M. Pertv, 1852 AQUARIUM AND FISH-CULTURE PERIODICALS Allgemeine Fischerei-Zeitung, Miinchen Blatter fur Aquarien und Terrarien-Kunde, Magdeburg Correspondenzblatt fur Fischziichter, Crangen in Pommern Deutsche Fischerei-Zeitung, Stettin Fischerei Corresponded/., Dresden Forschungsberichte aus der Biologischen Station zu Plon Isis, Magdeburg *L' Acclimatation, Paris L' Aquarium, Paris Natur und Haus, Dresden-Strehlen Nerthus, Kiel Reports and Bulletins of the New York Zoological Society 365 List of Illustrations and Their Derivation LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS AND THEIR DERIVATION Japanese Fringctail Goldfish, Frontispiece. Author's original, from lite Fig- Page 1 The Common Goldfish, showing parts referred to in descriptions i^ Author's original from life 2 Skeleton of the Common Goldfish 16 Author's original 3 Greatly enlarged scale of the Common Goldfish 17 Author's original 4 Interior anatomy of the Goldfish, showing parts referred to in descriptions .... 18 Author's original 5 Diagram of the Blood circulatory systems of Fishes, Reptiles and Mammals ... 19 After Nicholson 6 The Common American Goldfish 39 Author's original, from life 7 The European Goldfish 39 Author's original, from lite 8 Scaled |apanese Comet Goldfish ... 44 Owned by the Author. Original, from life 9 Transparently-scaled Japanese Comet Goldfish 45 Owned by Mr. Fred. Dannenhauer.* Author's original, from life 10 Adult Japanese Fringetail Goldfish 46 Owned by Mr. Franklvn Barrett. Author's original, from lite 1 1 Young Japanese Fringetail Goldfish 47 Owned by the Author. Original, from life 1 2 Adult Japanese Fantail Goldfish 48 Owned by Mr. Rudolph H. Wolf. Author's original, from life 13 Scaled |apanese Nymph Goldfish 49 Owned by Mr. George F. Erb. Author's original, from life 14 Transparently-scaled Japanese Nymph Goldfish, "Hetzel's Silver Dollar" .... 49 Owned by Mr. William H. Hetzel. Author's original, from life 1 5 Adult Japanese Hooded or Lion-headed Goldfish 50 Drawn from the Japanese drawing made for Dr. Hugh M. Smith and from life 16 Japanese Barnacled Paradise Goldfish 51 Owned by Mr. George Cugley. Author's original 17 Eye forms of the Flat-eyed and the Telescopic-eyed Goldfishes 52 After Dr. E. Bade and from life 18 Scaled Japanese Telescope Goldfish 53 Owned by the Author. Original, from life 19 Adult Chinese Mottled Telescope Goldfish 54 Owned by Dr. Robert Formad and Mr. Rudolph H. Wolf. Lateral view . Author's original, from life 20 The Same. Dorsal view 54 21 Young Chinese Mottled Telescope Goldfish 5 5 Owned by Dr. Herman Burgin. Lateral view. Author's original, from life. 22 The Same. Frontal view 5 5 23 Chinese Fringetail Telescope Goldfish 5 U Owned by the Author. Original, from life 24 Chinese Moor Telescope Goldfish 57 Owned by Dr. Herman T. Plass. Author's original, from lite *The gentlemen named as Owners are Members of the Aquarium Society of Philadelphia. 369 Fig. Page 25 Chinese Tiger Telescope Goldfish 58 Owned by Mr. Z. K. Dannenhower. Author's original, from life 26 The Same. Frontal view 58 27 Chinese Lettered Telescope Goldfish 59 Owned by Mr. Frankly n Barrett. Author's original, from life 28 Chinese Celestial Telescope Goldfish 60 Owned by the Author. Dorsal view. Original, from life 29 The Same. Lateral view 60 30 Chinese Eggfish 62 After Dr. Frederich Knauer 3 1 Chinese Tumbler Goldfish 63 Drawn from the sketch and description of Mr. Hugo Mulcrtt 32 Agard's Wonder 64 Owned by Mr. Frederick T. Agard. Authors original, from life 33 Lawson's "The White Rat." Lateral view 64 Owned by Mr. Howard H. Lawson. Author's original, from life 34 The same. Dorsal view 64 35 Indian Paradise Fish 71 Author's original, from life 36 Four-spined Stickleback 72 After Jordan and Evermann 37 Common Sunfish 74 After Jordan and Evermann 38 Black-banded Sunfish 74 After Jordan and Evermann 39 Black-nosed Dace 75 After |ordan and Evermann 40 Creek-chub 76 After Jordan and Evermann 41 Golden Ide or Orfe 76 Author's original, from life 42 Young Golden Tench 77 Author's original, from life 43 Scaled Carp 78 Author's original, from life 44 Mirror Carp 79 Author's original, from life 44 a Leather Carp 79 Author's original, from life 45 Crusian Carp 80 Author's original, from life 46 Tessellated Darter 81 After Jordan and Evermann 47 Common Sucker 81 After Jordan and Evermann 48 Barred Ki'llifish 82 After Jordan and Evermann Chub-sucker or Mullet 82 After {ordan and Evermann 50 Silver-fin , 83 After Jordan and Evermann 51 Shiner or Roach 83 After Jordan and Evermann 52 Stone-catfish 84 After Jordan and Evermann 5 3 Common Eel 85 After Jordan and Evermann 54 Goldfish spawn attached to a leaf of an Aquatic plant 89 55 Embriology of the Goldfish 90 Author's original, from life 370 49 Fig. Page 56 Difference at anal region of Female and Male Goldfishes 91 Author's original 57 Diagram of the vertebra and tail-rays of Goldfishes . • • 97 Author's original 58 Plans of a Greenhouse for Goldfish Propagation 105 Author's original 59. and ^<;a Plan of a Fish Farm 106, 107 After Wozelka-Iglau 60 Arrangement for a Large Fish-culture Establishment 108 Author's original 6 1 and 61 a Pond Aquarium 1 09, 1 10 After William P. Seal 62 and 63 The Aquarium Grotto at Washington, D. C 1 10, 1 1 1 After Mr. William P. Seal 64 Branchipus stagnalis, a Crustacean 118 Author's original, from life 6$ Api/.s carter if ormis, a Crustacean 119 Author's original, from a specimen in alcohol 66 Daphnia pulex, a Crustacean 119 Author's original, from life 67 Polyphemus pedeculus, a Crustacean 120 Author's original, from life 68 Leptodern hyalina, a Crustacean 120 Author's original, from life 69 Cypris virensy a Crustacean 120 Author's original, from life 70 Cyclops thomasi, a Crustacean 121 Author's original, from life 7 1 Gammarus pulex, a Crustacean 122 Author's original, from life 72 Asellopus tenax, a Crustacean 122 Author's original, from life 73 Freshwater Crayfish. Natural size 123 After Sidney I. Smith 74 Rotifera 1 24 Author's original, from life 75 Fungus on Spawn 134 After Livingston Stone 76 Head of a Goldfish affected with White Fungus 135 Author's original 77 Head of a Goldfish affected with Black Fungus . 136 Author's original 78 Trematod Parasites taken from imported Japanese and Chinese Goldfishes . . . .137 Author's original 79 Tail of a Goldfish affected with Tail-rot 140 Author's original 80 Gyrodactylus elegans, a Trematod parasite 147 After Van Beneden and Wedl 81 Distomum gracile, a Trematod parasite 148 After Zeder 82 Diplostomum cuticola, a Trematod parasite 148 After Nordmann 83 Gasterostoma gracilescens, a Trematod parasite 148 After Cobbold 84 Bothrioccphalls proboscidcus, a Cestode parasite 14S After Leuckart 85 Ligula simplicissima, a Cestode parasite 148 After Lam pert 86 Schistocephalus solidus, a Cestod parasite 148 After Bade 371 Fig. 87 A Stickleback affected with Schistocephalus so I id us Author's original. Enlarged 88 A Section of Same, showing cysts Author's original 89 Ascaris acus, a Nematod parasite After Cobbold 90 Cocullanus elegaus, a Nematod parasite After Zeder 91 Echinorhytichus proteus, an Anthocephalous parasite After Hamann and Westrumb 92 Echinorhytichus august at us, an Anthocephalous parasite After Busk 93 Echitlorhynchus anthuris, an Anthocephalous parasite After Cobbold 94 Carp Leeches attached to the head of a small-mouthed Black Bass . . . Author's original 95 Pisciola funduli, the Carp Leech After Diesing 96 Trichodina pediculus, the polyp-louse After Zernecke 97 Hydrachna geographica, an Arachnid parasite Author's original 98 Lemacera cyprinacea, a Crustacean parasite After Baird 99 The Same, attached to the gill of a large-mouthed Black Bass . . . . Author's original 100 Argulus catostorui, a Crustacean parasite Author's original 101 Lymphosporidium truttte, a Protozoan parasite After E. F. Smith 102 Myxobolus sp. incert, a Sporozoan parasite After Gurley 102A The Same, on the head of a Goldfish Author's original, from life 103 Myxobolus cyprini, a Sporozoan parasite Encysted in the kidney of a Carp. After Gurley 104 Myxobolus ellipsoides, a Sporozoan parasite Encysted in the tissues of the Air-bladder of a Tench. After Gurley 104A Myxosporidium genus incert sp., a Sporozoan parasite Encysted in the skin and tissues of a minnow. After Linton 105 Ichthyophthirius rnultifiliis, an Infusorian parasite After Fouquet 106 Head of a Catfish afflicted with Ichthyophthirius rnultifiliis After Stiles 107 Pantotrichum lagcnula, an Infusorian parasite After Kent 108 Holotrichus mystacea, an Infusorian parasite After Kent 109 Chromatophagus parasiticus, an Infusorian parasite After Kent I 10 Tetrarnitus nitschei, an Infusorian parasite After Weltner I I 1 Saprolegniacea, Vegetal parasites ... After Humphreys 1 1 2 Floating Arrowhead, Sagittaria nutans Author's original, from nature 1 1 3 Fanwort, Cabomba caroliniana Author's original, from nature 114 Eel Grass, Vallisneria spiralis Author's original, from nature 372 Fig. Page 19 Spiked Water-milfoil, Myriophyllum spicatum 190 Author's original, from nature 16 Parrot's Feather, Myriophyllum proserpinacoides 1 A bnormal gold fishes* 64, Abramis crysoleucas, the Shiner 01 Roach Academy of Natural Sciences 13, Acanthocephala or Thorn-headed worms, parasites Acclimitization in the Marine acquarium .... Achiya apiculata, a vegetal parasite 4 \'l\ ice to Beginners Aeration, better, for diseased fishes of freshwater aquara and ponds 171. '77, el marine aquaria African snail, /.. auricularia* Agard's Wonder goldfish* Ailments and diseases of freshwater fishes . . Air pump for aquaria Alga; and Conferva? attached to Nitella Dr. \V. Koch - '- observations on in brook and river water marine 292 to more or less parasitic on Xitclla and Myriophyllum parasitic on the glass removing, from aquaria Alligator, A mississippiensis parasites of Ameirus catus, A nebulosis S. insignis, etc., the catfishes* Amphipoda, sub-order of Malocostraca* Anacharis, waterweed, Ditchmoss, etc.* planting in aquaria for freshwater aquaria* canadensis, waterweed, etc.* alsinastrum, waterweed, etc canadensis gigantic, cultivated, spe- cies of planting in the aquarium as an oxygenator Anal fins, variations of goldfishes* Anatomy of the common goldfish* Anemones and actintda 300, 301, Metridium marginatum Eloactis producta, etc Aulactinia capitaia Cerianthus americanus Tcelia crassicomis Edzvardsia sipunculoides, etc Ammophilactis rapiformis Cylista leucolena Sagartia Incite, etc Anemones, parasitic feeding in the aquarium Annelida or freshwater worms Animals, for the marine aquarium Sponges or Porifera Polyps, jelly fishes, anemones, etc., or Coelenterata Worms and leeches or Vermes Sea-mats, corallines, etc., or Mollus- coida Star fishes, sea-urchins, etc., or Echi- nodermata Crustaceans, or Arthropoda Whelks, muscles, clams, etc., or Mol- lusca Sea squirts, etc., or Cordata Fishes or Pisces Animals for the terrarium Annual parasites and parasitic diseases Ant egg food (ant pupae) Antigyrodactylin and other remedies treatment for parasitic dis- eases Antiseptic, oxygen as an Antiseptics and boiling water sterilization . . Apeltes quadratus, G. bispinosus and /\ pun- gitius, the sticklebacks* 7-. 73, Aphonomyces laevis, a vegetal parasite Appliances for collecting for marine aquaria Apodachlya pyrifera, a vegetal parasite Apus cancriformus, the miniature King-crab* Aquarium, the freshwater 25, aeration of the 178, arranging the freshwater 95 83 6 7 •50 323 1G4 3- 140 t 7 8 289 238 64 131 17s 206 195 176 i75 165 208 101 34 207 344 147 84 122 I96 179 I96 15 302 302 322 246 299 331 145 126 133 l6l 177 144 3'7 164 3 -'4 i6 t 118 30 289 28 the marine development of the changing fishes to the cleaning the freshwater const ruction and tank culture of the goldfish., and tank rearing of the goli equipment feeding iishes in the feeding in the fishes, some freshwater flower pots in food for the novice fountain de\ ice grotto at Washington, I ». < " kinds of literature and periodicals .355,362, marine or sea water number of Iishes for tin- tush water plants plants, arranging the, of fresh- plants, arranging the, of saltwater plants, ornamental planting the freshwater principles, recapitalization of the . proportions* bases, frames and glass Cements lor wood aquaria for zinc aquaria for brass and iron aquaria for marine aquaria for frameless aquaria . . . for rockwood and tuft- stone paints frames, construction of assembling the setting tlie glass of general data of the important handy experience tables 282, rockwork, pomice, tuftstone, etc... Society of Philadelphia 355, Societies 6, stands, shelving, racks, etc stocking the temperatures in the freshwater.... tools and appliances of the fresh- water tools and appliances of the marine water of the freshwater water of the freshwater, changing the Aqua-terraria* and swamp aquarium 33-, ami terrarium plants, 214, 330, Aquatic insects, classification of plants in the aquarium plants for freshwater aquaria ....26, plants for marine aquaria plants, soil for Arachnia or arachnid parasites* Arachnidia, aquatic spiders 273, Argulidse or Carp lice" _ Argulus catostomi, a crustacean parasite* ... Arranging aquarium plants the freshwater aquarium the marine aquarium Artificial impregnation of fish ova : seawater for marine aquaria Asellopus tenax, the water-asel* _ Assembling the aquarium, n tion .. Asphyxia, gill congestion or "sore throat" of fishes, and treatment Autotoxine, disease of fishes caroliniana, or floating pondmoss* ... 25 30 3- 277 103 99 28 30 125 7' 179 3 ' I7 8 1 10 -'7 36S 289 30 26 29 2 1 2 29 34 277 27S 279 280 2S0 282 283 180 356 3 54 30 30 283 325 172 176 33- 333 33i 25' 29 183 292 179 152 274 153 152 29 290 89 291 122 281 140 138 209 B abington's curse. Anacharis 196 Bacterids of protozoan parasites* 153 Balanced aquarium 26 Barely sustaining diets 115 Barnacles or Cirripedia 312 Bases for aquaria lias-, parasites of 147, 148 377 Pike, Pike-perch, etc 85 Basilewsky, M. Nouveau Memoirs 14 Basin construction for fishes 103 and pool culture of goldfishes 103 Baster, M. Opusculus subsiciva 11 Batracia, frogs and toads 333 mud puppy and hellbender 338 Beardsly, A. E., on hydra 248 Beginners, advice to 32 dont's for 351, 352, 353 Bernier's Madagascar lace plant 212 Best aquarium snails 238 mussels 246 Better aeration for diseased fishes 140 Bibliography of literature cited 362 Bichloride of Mercury treatment of fish dis- eases 133 for tailrot 140 for disinfection, etc 144 for parasites 1 60 Bird and Mammal parasites 149 Black fungus on fishes, and treatment 136 Black-nosed dace, R. cataracts'* 75 Black or Moor Telescope goldfish* 57 Bladderwort or Utricularia* 204 Bleeker, Dr. P., Atlas Ichthiologiquc 14 Bloch, Dr. Elieser, Iclitliiologie 12 description of goldfishes . . 12 Blood, circulation of the* 19 Blue Telescope goldfish, Chinese 60 Bolcosoma nigrum olmstcJi, the Tesselated darter* 80 Boracic acid and other remedies 133 acid treatment acid for eye inflamation 142 acid for parasites 160 Bottle-brush, Joint-weed, Mare's tail* 199 Branchiopods, the young 119 Branchipus stag7ialis, the Spring-time shrimp* 118 Breeds of goldfishes* 39 Breeding goldfishes for color, etc 93 fine goldfishes 42 the goldfish 98 establishment, specially equipped* .. 107 Buckland collecting can* 325 Butler, Henry D., History of the Aquarium . . 25 C abomba, or watershield, fanwort, etc 186 for freshwater aquaria ..1S3, 186, 187 caroliniana, Carolina watershield* 186 rosccfolia, Red-stalked watershield 187 aquatica, Tropical watershield .... planting in the aquarium 187 as an oxygenator Calamus, acorus and sweet flags 213 Calico or Mottled Goldfish* 53 Callitriche, or water star-wort 204 for freshwater aquaria 183 vema, Spring water star-wort* . . 204 bifida, Northern water star-wort . . heterophyllum, Larger water star- wort austenii, Terrestial water star-wort for pond or basin culture 204 planting in the aquarium 187 (apt- Fear river snails 235, 238 Cyprinus aureus, the food carp 15 Care of the freshwater aquarium 32 marine aquarium 320 marine consignments 323 Carbonic acid gas in water 178 Carp, the Scaled, Mirror 78 Leather, Golden, Crusian, etc.* 78, 79, 80 food of the 80, 1 16 parasites of the 147, 148, 156 -lice or Argulidae* 152 Castor Oil and other remedies 133 treatment for constipation 138 for fin congestion 139 for tail-rot 140 for swimming-bladder trouble .... 143 Catfish, the White, Horned Pout, Mad Tom, etc.* 84 parasites of the 147, 1 56 Cat, rat, frog, water snake, etc., as enemies. . 144 Cat-tails or Typha 214 Catostomus commersonii, the Common Sucker* 81 Caudal, and anal fins of goldfishes* 97 Celestial Telescope goldfish, Chinese* 60 Cements, for wood aquaria 279, 280 for zinc aquaria for brass and iron aquaria for marine aquaria 280 for franaeless aquaria for rockwork and tuftstone Ceratophyllum for freshwater aquaria 1X3, 198, 199 demersum, common Hornwort* 198 submersum and C. platyacan thuin 19S planting in the aquarium 199 as an aquarium plant 198 Cestoda or Tapeworms, parasites* 148 Chaetodon, .1/. cluctodon* 74 Chandler, Prof. C. F., Report on Hudson river water 1 74 Changing aquarium water 112 Changes to colder and warmer weather for aquaria 33 Chara and nitella, for freshwater aquaria .... 183, 194, 195 coroiiiita, crowned chara 194 gymnopus, Elegant chara* 195 crinita, crumpled chara* 195 Charcoal, deodorizing and antiseptic effect of 34 Chilian water-milfoil, M. proserpmacoides* . . 190 Chinese Telescope goldfishes* 52 Blue Telescope goldfish 60 Celestial Telescope goldfish* 60 Eggfish* 61 Lettered Telescope goldfish* 59 Mottled Telescope goldfish* 53 Moor Telescope goldfish* 57 Piebald or Tiger Telescope goldfish* 58 Tumbler goldfish* 62 snail, V. stelmaphora 239 Chlorate of potassium as an antiseptic 133 treatment for diseases . 160 for disinfection 144 Chlorophyllaceae, low aquatic plant forms . . 165 Chromatophagus parasiticus, an infusorian parasite* 158 Choui-Yu goldfishes 14, 66 Chub, fall-fish or Corporal, S. corporalis* ... 75 Chubsucker, the Brilliant or Mullet, E. suc- etta* 82 Cladocera, sub-order of Crustacea* 119 Cleaning the aquarium 29, 32 objects for the aquarium 180 Cleanliness to exterminate leeches and other parasites 151 Coal Oil and other remedies 133 treatment for White fungus 135 treatment for Black fungus 137 Cold water effect on fishes 11 1 Collecting natural food U4 in streams and ponds 85 for the marine aquarium 323 marine aquatic plants 323 Colors of the common goldfish 40 Combination fish foods 127 Common American and European goldfishes* 39 Comparisons of goldfish eyes, Ryder's 96 Conditions of light for aquaria 171 Conferva?, Cladophora, etc 166 Congestion of fins of fishes 139 Consignments, receiving of marine 325 Constant water flow in aquaria 1 1 1 level siphon 285 Constipation of fishes, and treatment 138 Constructing the aquarium 277 Consumption in fishes, and treatment 141 treatment with nourishing food 142 Contents, table of, Index 377 Contia nccarix, an infusoriam parasite* 158 Copopoda, sub-order of the Crustacea* 121 Coral, branch and reef. Madropores 302 Chordata, M. manhattensis, etc 299, 316 Corean goldfish 11 Corporal or Fall-fish, Chub, Wind-fish, S. cor- pora! is 75 Crayfishes, prawns, shrimp, crabs and lob- sters* 122, 123 parasites of 156 Crustacea, freshwater forms 118 to 124 or crustacean parasites* 152 Crustaceans, marine forms 307 to 313 Crab, blue, C. hastatus green, C. mernus rock, C. irroratus 308 jonah, C. borcalis mud, P. herbstii, etc. . . . lady, P. ocellatus sand, O. arcnia stone, M. mercenaria .... 309 Spider, Sea-spider, L. cm- arginata, etc toad, //. coarctatus lung-armed spider, L. pourtalesii hermit, 5". pollicaris, etc... fidler, G. mina.v, etc Oyster, P. ostreum 310 scallop, P. maculatum .... sandbug, H. taipoida .... King or Horse-shoe, L. Polyphemus 378 as scavengers Lobster, American, // a m a r u s atnericanus < ali tut nia, Panulirus enteruptus Sin imps, '-.md, C. vulgaris Southern, /'. setiferus, etc mantis, S. empusa . . . skeleton, ( '. geometrica Prawn, American, /'. vulgaris .in. deep water, /'. borealis, 3 10 310 31 1 itc. Barnacle, black, B. erburneus .. ivory, />'. balanoides . . goose, li. tintinabulum Sand hoppei . ( '. agili f, etc larger, G. locusta . Isopods 312, Cirolena concharum, etc, ( rystalwort, for freshwatei aquaria Cryptogamia, low forms of plant life \ egi table parasites Cruelty t<> fishes Cuvier and Valenciennes, Histoire Naturelle des Poissons Cypera and Papyruses Cyclops, ('. thomasi, C. agilis, etc.* Dace, the, R. cataracts, etc.* Daphnia, P. pulex, D. latvis, etc.* as food for fishes I larter, Tessellated, B. ohmstedi* I i.uilu'ny on aquaria Decapoda, sub-order of Malocostraca* Degenerative changes in goldfishes Deodorizing effect of charcoal Depth of water for hatching Derivation of the illustrations De Sauvigny's description of the goldfishes of China Descriptive designations of goldfishes Desirable characteristics of the common gold- fish Destruction of plants by fishes Determinations in water analysis Detection of illness of fishes 1 diagrams of freshwater snails and mussels* 217. of tail-rays of goldfishes* Diatoms and dismids 166, Dichtyuchus polysporus, a vegetal parasite* .. 1 )iet for freshwater fishes Dietaries for goldfishes, etc Digestive system of the goldfish Discrimination of sex* Diseased fishes handling of Diseases, fungus, in transferring fishes of fresh and saltwater fishes Disinfectants and antiseptics Displacement of internal organs of goldfishes Dont's for beginners 351, 352, Dripping water as a remedy for fish diseases Dropsy, a disease of fishes and its treatment Dry terraria Duckweeds for freshwater aquaria* Duplication of fins in goldfishes Dwarf lilies, for freshwater aquaria E arly spawning of goldfishes Earthworms as food for fishes as laxatives for diseased fishes . . for consumption of fishes Echinodermata, or Marine radiates Ecto- and EntO-parasites, surface and internal Edwards, George, description of goldfishes ... Eel, the common, A. chrysypa* cusk and saltwater 319, parasites of 147, 148, Eel grass, Tape grass, etc., V. spiralis* Effect of cold water on fishes 1 -is, fumes and odors Eggfish, Chinese* Egg food for fishes Eggs or •-pawn of goldfishes Bichhornia asuria, lavender-blue flowered water hyacinth 212 crassipes, lilac-rose flowered water hyacinth t2l2 Elodea, see Anachares 196 Embriology of the goldfish* 00 Emersed and submerged aquatic plants 183 Entomostraca, of freshwater 118 marine or water-fleas 312 Epsom and glauber salts 133 treatment for diseases of fishes I3g 208 II,! 161 35 13 213 7 5 1 10 127 80 95 34 99 367 65 43 41 34 173 131 219 97 207 163 126 115 17 91 32 144 177 131 144 95 353 141 '43 329 208 94 212 100 126 139 142 304 145 11 84 320 156 1SS I 1 1 33 6r 126 101 treatment for tail-rot . . . 140 Minn in plants and animal exist in aquaria 1 yy t 183 Equipping the aquarium .' 28 Erimyson sucetta, the Brilliant Chubsucki Mullet* 82 Eu porno tis gibbosus, /:'. gloriosus, 1.. auritus, M. clurtodon, the , - ( ement of th< .' . _., ive feeding of fishes ri6 light in gi eenhouse culture 106 1 itperl method of transferring aquarium fishes 177 Eyi n 1 1 1 . 1 1 n 1 1 1 1 I . : , . I , 1 1 , ^ _, 1 ' -I tl Idfish* 52 Fairy-shrimp, Gammarus pulex* 122 Failure of hatches of goldfishes 102 48 Fanwoi 1, Fish gr; ■■ . . aroliniana* . . . Fattening diets for fishes i 1 s Feathei stai 9 01 Ci i lea Feeding anemones animals of the tcrrarium 348 basins in lakes and ponds 106 aquarium 30 116 goldfish fry c,i in the aquarium 31, ti6, 1 25 in thi' pi 1 ai ium 348 marine animals 321 snil in 117 temperature in 117 the fry 116, 117 Filters for marine aquaria 321 Filling the aquarium 29 with out-of-door tank water 177 Fin congestion of fishes, and treatment 139 Fins, of the goldfish 16 forms of, variations in* 97 Fish Commission aquarium grotto* no Fish culture and aquarium periodicals, 355, 365 diseases 131 globes, undesirable 35 literature. Bibliography 362 roe and fish-flesh t" I 126 Fishes, cruelty to 35 diseased 32 in general 14 "out of condition" 133 photographing 16 restlessness of 33 success with, in the aquarium 30 marine or Pisces 317 to 320 Herring, common, C. harengus 317 Sardine, Sardinella Menhaden, B. tyrannus Toothed-minnows 317 pursy, C. variegatus killifish, F. heteroclitus Mayfish, F. majalis rainwater fish. L. parva Sea-horse. American. //. hudsonius .. 317 European, H. hippocampus Pipe-fish, common, S. fuscum 317 Sticklebacks, ./. quadracus, etc 72. 73. 317 Silver-side, sand smelt, M. cerea .... 317 Whitebait, .1/. notata 317 Mullets, grey, M. cephalus and id. curema 317 Crevalles, Goggler, T. crumenopthal- in us 317 Thread-fish, .-/. crinitus Moon-fish, V. setapinis Silver moon-fish, S. ; omer Sea bass, common, C. striatus 318 Snapper, grey, N. griseus 318 dog, .V. JOCU Schoolmaster, N. apodus Mutton-fish, V. analis (',1 unts, common, //. plumieri 318 grey, //. macrostomum j 1 How, //. sciurus Croakers 318 Weakfish, ( '. nebulosus Kinglisb. .1/. atnericanus Drum. /'. chromis Tape May goodie, /. xanthurus ... Madamoiselle, B. chrysura Wrasses. Tautog. '/'. onitis 318 dinner. (". adspersus Harvest Fishes, rlarvest-fish, P. /vm 318 Pumpkin-seed, P. triacanthus Black rudder fish, /'. perciformis . . Butterfly or Angel Fishes, Chaeto- dontidae 31S I de lislies. I., hispidus, etc 318 379 Swell-fish, common, S. maculatus ... 319 rabbit-fish, L. her i gat us Sculpin, Miller's thumb, U. gracilis 319 grubby, A. ceneus Toad-fish, Opsanus tan 319 Blennie, Butter-fish, /'. gunnellus ... 319 Gobies, scaleless, G. bosci 319 chubby, G. soporator Gunnard, sea-robin, }'. paltnipes .... 319 wing-fish, P. evolans sea-bat, C. volitans Stargazer, American, A. anoplus .... 319 Eel cusk, R. marginata 319 Coa, Tom-cod or frost-fish, ^1/. tvm- cod 320 Flat fishes, Hog choker, A. fascitus . 320 flatfish, P. americanus Summer-flounder, I', dentatus .... Southern flounder, P. lethostigmus four-spotted flounder, /'. oblongus window-pane, L. maculata rusty dab, L. ferruginca Skate, common, R. erinecea 320 larger, 7?. radiate barndoor, R. hcvis Sting-ray, D. centrums 320 Frog-fish, P. histrio 320 Fishing-frog or Angler, L. piscatorius 320 Eel, saltwater, Conger, L. conger . . 320 Floating arrowhead, i". natans, etc 184 Cape pond weed 213 heart 213 freshwater plants 214, 208 1 hiekweed 208 Pondmoss 209 Crystalwort 209 Salvinia 210 Triania 210 Frogbit 210 Water hyacinth 211 Water lettuce 212 plants* 208, 214 pondmoss for freshwater aquaria* . . 209 Floral leaves, removal of, in aquaria 179 Flower pots in aquaria 179 Flukes or Tremotoda parasites* 146 Fly maggots, feeding 125 Food and feeding 30 freshwater fishes 115, 126 Carp, Cyprinus aureus 15 food of 80, 116 Raw meat, liver, earthworms, fish roe, ant eggs, eggs, mixed and starchy 126 Formaline for disinfection 144 or formaldehyde and other antisep- tics 133 Forms of aquaria 277 of ponds and lakes* 106, 107 Fouling water by decomposition, etc 175 Fountain device for aquaria 178 Fontinalis, for freshwater aquaria 183, 200 antipyratica Willowmoss, etc.* . . . 200 gracilis, watermoss, etc* 200 gigantea, Robust willowmoss 200 as an aquarium plant 199 as an oxygenator 200 Frames for aquaria, construction of 278, 280 Freshwater algae 206 aquarium fishes 71 molluscs 217 plants for the aquarium 183 Vermes and Hydrozoa 246 Worms 246 P. leidyi, S. lacustris .... T. claparadii* 246 Polyps 247 H. viridis and //. fusca* . 247 Cordylaphora 248 C. lacustia 248 Fringetail Japanese goldfishes 45 Chinese Telescope goldfishes 56 Frogs and toads, classification of 333 to 336 Spring or Leopard frog, Rana vi- rescens 334 Green frog, Rana clamatans 335 Common bullfrog, Rana catesbcana 335 Western frog, Rana prctiosa 335 Western bullfrog, Rana aurora .... 335 American hoptoad, Bufo lentigi- nosis 336 Spade-foot toad, Sacphiopus hol- brooki 336 Common tree-toad, Hyla versicolor 336 Pickering's tree-toad, Hyla picker- ingii 336 Swamp tree-toad, Chorophilis nigri- tus 336 Savannah cricket-toad, Acris gryl- lus 336 Green tree-toad, Hyla arborca .... 336 Chameleon tree-toad, Hyla chatne- leonis 336 tadpole, parasites of 147, 156 Frogbit, for freshwater aquaria* 210, 208 Fry, feeding the goldfish 116 Fundulus hcterochtus and F. diaphanus, the Killifishes* 81 Fungi in aquaria, prevention of 165 parasitic 162 parasitic plant 166 parasitic on lilies, etc 166 slime 166 Fungus on spawn, S. ferax* 134 white, on fishes 134 black, on fishes 136 G amtnarus putex, the Fairy-shrimp* 122 Gases, fumes and odors, effect of 33 Gastrotricha, sub-order of Trochelminths* ... 124 ( leneral aquaria data 282 table for reference 282, 283 German fish food 127 Gill congestion of fishes, and treatment 140 Glass, alga; on the 34 for aquaria 278 setting of, in aquaria 278 sash for greenhouse* 105 Glauber and epsom salts treatment for diseases of fishes 133, 139 Globe flowers or Trollius 214 Glossary of scientific terms 357 to 361 Golden Ide or Orfe, Idus id us and I. mela- notis* 76 Goldfish, abnormal breeds* 64 aquarium and tank culture of .... 103 basin and pool culture 103 breeding the 98 for color 98 for transparent scales 93 for large eyes, etc 93 breeds of* 39 Carassius auratus 15 Common American and European, 15, 39 Japanese comet* 44 fantail* 46 fringetail* 45 nymph* 49 hooded or lion-headed* 50 barnacled* 51 telescope* 53 Chinese mottled telescope* 53 fringetail telescope* 56 moor telescope* 57 piebald telescope* 58 lettered telescope* 59 celestial telescope* 60 eggfish* 61 tumbler telescope* 63 drawing of a fine specimen* 356 Goldfishes, small greenhouse for culture of* 104 degenerative changes in 95 demand for 102 description and designation of . . . 43 desirable characteristics of 41 dietaries for 115 displacement of internal organs . . 95 disease investigations as applied to other fishes 145 duplication of fins of 94 Corean, Loo-choo, Maruko, Riukin, Wakin n embryology of the* 90 external anatomy of the Common* 15 internal anatomy of the Common* 17, 18, 19 eyes of the* 52 Ryder's comparisons of the 96 failures of hatches of 102 for disease investigations 145 for the novice 32 fry, feeding the 91 handling young 102 hybridization of* 64 imperfectly developed 41 mating the 90, 91 maturity of 101 methods of culture of 103 origin of 11 parasites of, 147, 150, 151, 155, 156, 157 points in judging 355, 356 propagation of the 89 rearing in aquaria, tanks, and in the open air 99, 100 selecting the breeding 100 spawning the 91 success with imported 102 wintering 1 10 380 1 it eenhousi goldfish culture* [04 Beating 1 .. 5 special!) equipped ' 105, 108 Growth of plants in Freshwater 26, 183 Gyrodactylus", ;i tremotod parasite* ■ 4. < > and I chinorhyncus, pi oducing gill congestion of fishes . . 1 1 1 and Mixidium, producing Black fungus < iypsum and plastei ol pai is 133, 180 Handling young fishes ,. Hatching water cor Goldfishes 99 Handling diseased fishes en Health] diets foi fishes 115 I [eated dry terrai ia 330 moisl tei raria 330 Heating arrangements for small greenhousi Hellbender, Cryptobranclu allegantensis 338 Herrings or Clupeidx 317 1 11 asites of 1 50 Hippuris, for freshwater aquaria 1N3 vulgaris. Bottle brush, mare's tail, etc. 199 tetrapltyllum, Four-leaved mare's tail 199 maritema, Four-leaved mare's tail . 199 as an aquarium plant 199 Histoire Naturelle des Dorades de ia ( bine, by cle Sauvigny 13, 65 Naturelle des Poissons de Lacepede, Cuvier ami Valenciennes 13 History of (be Aquarium 25 Hirudinidx or Leeches 151 Hog's nose ami Ram's nose goldfishes 40 Holotrichus mystacca, an infusorian parasite* 157 Horned-dace or Greek-chub, .V. atromaculus* 76 Hospital or Sanitarium for fishes 132 Hottonia, for freshwater aquaria 183 uithild, water-feather 206 palustris 206 as a pond plant 206 Hybridization of the goldfish* 64 Hydrocharis morsus-ranaf, the European frog- bit' 210 Hypertrophy of organs of goldfish 96 Hydra, polyps of freshwater 247 enemies of young fishes 248 destruction of 248 I chthyophthiriidse, infusoria protozoan para- sites' 156 Ichthyophthirius ami Chromatophagus, produc- ing Twitters or Itch 137 Ichtkyophtkirius multffiliis, an infusorian para- site* 157 Idus idus ami /. melanotis, Ide or Orfe* . . 76 Illness of fishes, detection of the 131 fine breeds of goldfishes 145 Illustrations and their derivation 367 Imperfectly developed goldfishes 41 Impregnation, artificial 89 Index and table of contents 377 Indian 1'aradise fish* 71 Infusoria, protozoan parasites* 156 Ingelhauss on Aquaria 25 Injuries to fishes, and treatment 144 Inorganic substances in water 172 Insects aquatic, Hemiptera 252 to 272 Xeuroptera 257 Thysanura 264 I (iptera 264 ( ' ileoptei a 268 Lepidoptera 272 Arachnids 273 Acarina 274 Hydrachna 274 Insects, aquatic, classification and description of 251 to 272 Water-boatman, Curisa interupta, etc.* 252 Black-swimmers, Notonecta undulata, etc.* ... 253 Water-scorpions, Nepa apiculata, etc.* ..253. 254 Giant Water-bug, Belostotnia griseum, etc.* . 254 Creeping Water-bug, Ambrysus signoretti* ... 255 'load buy, Pelogonus americanus, etc.* 255 Shore-bug, Sal da signoretti, etc.* 256 Broad shouldered water-striders, Hebrus ameri- canus, etc.* 256 Hydrometra lineata* 256 Marsh-tieader, Litnnobates lineata. etc." 257 Aquatic plant lice, R. nympha>a; etc.* 257 Dobsons, Corydatts corinita, etc.* 258 May-flies or shad-flies, Heptagenia pulchella, etc.* 259 Stone-flies, Leuctra tenella, etc.* 260 ton-flies, Gomphus exilis, etc.* 261 Caddice-flies, Phryganea interrupta, etc.* .... 263 Water spring-tails, Podurus aquatica, etc.* .. Mosquitoes, Culex pungens, etc.* 265 net-winged, Blepharocera capitata, eti 267 iquatic, Simulida and Empididae, Predaceous diving-beetles, Dytiscus fast tris, etc.* ji„, ( in it wati 1 I" ■ > ! hilida globes \\ 1 1 1 r ligig beetles, Gyrinui at nis, etc. Pond-beetles, Haliplus ruficollis, etc.* 271 Smaller water beetles, Psephemus lecontii, 2J2 1 lii'i.i Mot h amp us oblit, 1 . 272 1 In" 1 ta fulicalis, etc. ' 273 \\ atei fjidi , etc.* . , 273 Watei mites, Bdella maritima, and Hydrachna In ects, aquatic outline "i .1 watei beetle* ......... 251 Insect enemies of fishes 252 1 parasites or Insecta 153 Isnardia palustris, Ludwigia* Isopoda, suborder of Malocostraca* 31 _> ftch or Tw itters, d 1 jhes, and I Ilient 1 ,- J apanese go tit.. 61 snail, ( '. malleolus" 23.S Judging goldfishes 355 points for 355, 356 Killifishes, the, F. heterochtus and /■". Jia- phanus* 81 Kinds of aquaria 27 Kin-Teon-Yu goldfishes 63, 66, 14 Kin-Yu and Kinyiki goldfishes 66, 96 Koch, Dr. W., observations on growing alga- 170 Lacepede. HistOrie Naturelle des Poissons .. 13 Lacertilia or lizards 339 I. ace plant, Lattice-leaf or water yam' 212 Larger enemies of fishes 14 ) Late spawning of goldfishes 101 Lawson's White Rat goldfish* 64 Leeches or Hirudinidae 151 of carp ' 151 Leech-like polyp, T. pediculus* 151 Leeches and worms, marine 303 Leeds, Prof. A. R., Report on water supply .. 173 I 1 mna Or Duel < 20$ minor. Lesser Duckweed* 208 Hlla, Tiny Duckweed* 208 ', thick-leaved Duckweed' 209 polyrhisa, Greater Duckweed' 209 trisulca, Ky leaved Duckweed* .... 209 Lerna>cera cyprinacea, a crustacian parasite* . 152 l.eptodora, /.. hyalina* 120 Light for aquaria 171 in greenhouse tish culture 106 Lilies for freshwater aquaria 183 Lime and magnesium in natural waters 172 Limnobium spongia, the American frog-bit' . 211 Limnanthemus indicum, or water snowflake 212 Limnocharis humboldtii, or water-poppy 212 Lizards or Lacortilia, classification of ....339, 340 Blue tailed lizard, E. fasciatus . . Line tree lizard, ,V. undulatus .... Black-lined lizard. E. anthracinus Chameleon lizard, A. principalis . 340 Ground lizard, /.. laterals 1 1, niied toad, /'. cornutus Grass or Joint snake, 0. ventralis Live food for goldfishes 122 Long-Tsing-Yu goldfishes 14, 66 Loo-cl goldfishes 11 I 10 estrife or Ludwigia' 102 Loricata or alligators and crocodiles 344 Ludwigia. for freshwater aquaria ...183, 192, 193 palustris, Marsh purslain* 192 glandulosa, cylindric fruited Lud- 193 mulerttii, Mulertt's Ludwigia' .... 193 alternifoiia, alternate-leaved Lud- wigia 103 for aquaria and pond growth .... 194 as an aquarium oxygenator 183 Lymphosporidiutn trutta, a protozoan parasite* 154 fVI acropodus venestrus and .1/. viridi-auratus, the Paradise-fish* 7' Mad. 1 plant * 212 lesium and lime in water 172 ce i.f the 111.11 ine aquai ium 32.. Malocostraca, classification of the 121 Mammal and bird parasites .. 149 Manual du Libraire, description of de Sau- vigny's goldfishes '3 381 Mare's tail. Hippurus vulgaris* 199 Marine animals, feeding the 321 Marine aquaria and inmates, aeration, etc. .. 289 arranging the 290 aeration of the sea water for 290 artificial sea water 291 h\ drometer and other tools, 283, 292 temperature of 292 plants for 292 care of 320 filters 321 tools 324, 325 Marine fauna 298 molluscs as scavengers 316, 323 worms and leeches or Vermes ...303, 304 Marsilea or water clover 212, 213 nutans 212 Maruko goldfish 1 1 Mating the goldfish 90, 91, 99 Maturity of goldfishes 101 Messmates and true parasites 145 Methods of breeding goldfishes 98 goldfish culture 103 Microscope in treatment of diseases 137, 144 Mineral constituents supplied to aquarium water 176 salts in aquaria 139 Minnows, N. procne, N. analostanus, etc* .. 82 Mites, 'Picks, etc., .parasites 1 52 Mixed food for fishes 126 Molluscoida, or marine polyzoa 304 Molluscs, freshwater univalve and bivalve*, 217, 218 reproductive methods 218, 219 diagrams of snails and mussels*, 217, 219 univalves and bivalve, marine, 313. 314. 3i5 Univalves, marine Smooth limpet, A. testudinatis . . Slipper limpet, C. fornicata Periwinkle, L. irrorata Natica, N . duplicate! Dove shell, C. lunata Welks, N. obsoleta, N. trivittata and B. undatum 313, 314 Bivalves, marine Clam, razor, E. directus Clam, soft, M. truncata Clam, trough, M. solidissina . . . Clam, boring, P. pholadiformis . Clam, cockle, A. transversa .... Clam, quahog, V. mcrcinaria . . . Mussel, edible, M. cdulis Mussel, horse, ftl. plicatulus . . . Mussel, jingle, A. si 111 flex Scallop, common, P. irradiana . . Squids, O. sagittatus and L. pealii 316 Molluscs, parasites of 147 Mud puppy, Necturus maculosus 338 Muddy water remedy for sick fishes 176 Mullet or chub-sucker, E. succtta* 156, 82 parasites of 156 Mussels, classification and descriptions of freshwater 240 to 245 Sptcn'um simile, S. rivicola, S. stria- tum in, etc.* 240 Pisidium compressum, P. abditum, etc.* 24 1 Unio complanatus* 242 Lampsilis radiatum. L. ■ ochrasus and L. eariosus* 242 Anadonta cataracta and A. impli- cata* 243, 244 Margaritaiia margaritifera, and ]\1. marginata 245 Moneywort, creeping Jenny, etc 203 Monsell's salt and other remedies 133 treatment for Black fungus 137 for disinfection, etc 144 Mosquito larae as fish food 123 Mussels and snails, freshwater 217 Mussels, general remarks on 246 Myriophyllum and proserpinaca* 189 for freshwater aquaria, 183, 189, 190 spicatum, Spiked water-milfoil* 189 verticillatum, YVhorled-milfoil* . 190 alternifolia, Loose-flowered mil- foil 190 nitschei, Full-branching milfoil 190 proserpinacoides, Parrot's feath- er 190 Myxobolus cyprini, a protozoan parasite* .... 155 Myxosporidiutn genus incert, a protozoan para- site* 155 Natural food for fishes 37, 118 collecting of 124 preserving 124 propagating 125 Nasturtium, Loosestrife or Ludwigia* 192 Nematoda or Roundworms* 149 Nemertina, or Marine worms 303 Nemertes socialis, etc Tetrastemma arenicola Cosmocephala ochracea Polina glutinosa Nets, separate nets, etc., for diseased fishes . 144 aquarium tools 283, 325 Newts and salamanders 337 Niagara snails* 233, 234 Nichols, Prof. W. R., Water supply, chemical and san itary 174 Nin-Kubk-Yu goldfishes 66 Nitella and chara, for freshwater aquaria, 183, 194, 195 tlcxihs, flexible nitella* 194 gracilis, Slender nitella* ....194, 195 tenuissima, Clustered nitella* ... 194 planting in the aquarium 195 as an oxygenator 195 Nitric acid treatment for tailrot 140 Notropis procne, N. cornutus, etc., the Min- nows 82 Nourishing food for diseased fishes 137 Number of fishes for the aquarium 30, 32 to be mated 99 Nymphae, dwarf lilies for freshwater aquaria 212 or water lilies 213 Odor and taste of aquarium water 176 Ophidia or snakes 340 Open air rearing of young goldfishes ..100, 104 Origin of the goldfish 11 Ornamental aquarium plants 212 Ostracoda, sub-order of Crustacea* 120 Outdoor tanks and basins in winter 104 tanks to greenhouse* 104 Ouvirandra, as aquarium plants* 212 finistralis, Madagascar lace plant 212 bernieriana, Bernier's Madagas- car lace plant 212 Oxygen in water 26, 178 Oxygen as an anticeptic 177 Paints, etc., for aquaria 280 Papy ruses and cypera 213 Pantotrichum lagenula, an infusorian para- site* 157 Paradise fish, the Indian* 71 to destroy hydra 248 Paradise or Barnacled goldfish* 51 Parasites and parasitic diseases 145 of fishes, how acquired 146 vegetable, treatment 165 Parasiticides 1 59 Parasitic algae 161, 165 plant fungi 162, 166 diseases, prevention of 159 Parrot's feather, M. proserpinacoides* 190 Pennant, Systcma Natural 11 Perch, Pike-perch, etc 85 parasites of 147, 1 54, 1 56 Periodicals, aquarium and fish-culture ...35s, 365 Permanganate of Potassium and other reme- dies 133 treatment for White fungus . . 136 Black fungus 137 fin congestion 140 tail-rot 140 injuries of fishes 144 animal parasites 160 Phenol-sodique and other remedies 133 treatment for Twitters 138 for tail-rot 140 for injuries of fishes 144 Philotria, see Anacharis 196 Photographing fishes 86 Picric acid treatment for parasitic diseases . . 160 Pike, parasites of 147, 154, 156 I 'ike, pike-perch, bass, etc 85 Pickerel weeds 213 Piebald or Tiger Telescope goldfish* 58 Pisces, or fishes 14, 317 Piscicola fundula, the car]) leech* 151 Pistia stratifies, or water-lettuce 212 Hans of fish farms* 106, 108 Plants, aquatic of freshwater 183 Plants for the terrarium 331 the marine aquarium 293 to 298 Green marine, algae 293 Sea Lettuce, U. lactuca 293 Green Laver, U. latissima .... 293 Purple Laver, P. vulgaris 293 Band weed, E. combressa .... 294 Gut weed, E. intestinalis 293 ^82 Rock branch w eed, ( . i upesti is \i ched branch weed, c . an la . . Sea feather, B. pulmosa Flow ing haii , ( '. melagonium . . Sea wool, t '. tortuosa Sea vaucheria, / '. marina ( >li\ e colored algae ig | to Edible Bladderlock, ./. esculenta Rock weed, F. vesiculosus Knotted Sea whistle, F. n Gulf weed, S. vulgare i '.i! weed, /.. sat i arhina Sea Tangle, /.. Aexicaulis Needle w eed, S. rhisodes Broadleaved dotted weed, /'. latifolia Met maid's fish line, < . Mum . . String weed, ( . divaricata Red marine alga? i '"i al weed, ( '. officinalis < )ak leaf weed, / >. sinuosa .... Violet weed, /'. violacea Pitcher weed, /'. urceolata Tassel weed, /'. fastigiata Lobster-horn weed, /'. el Irish muss, C crispus Red leaf- weed, /'. membranifolia Sea slirul), C. americanum Flame weed, G. americana .... Plants, growth in sunlight affected by water conditions destruction by fishes with floating leaves Podostetnon ceratopnyllum, Thread-foot Points for the judgment of goldfishes ....35s, Polyps, hydra, etc.* leech like* marine or Coelenterata Polyphemus, P. pedeculus* Pond aquaria* plants and lake culture of freshwater fishes . . Ponds and lakes, forms of* and streams, collecting in Pondweed, channel or Riverweed, Potamoge- ton* Pool and basin culture of the goldfish Potamogeton in aquaria 170, 183, 201, for freshwater aquaria crispus. Curled leaved Pond- weed ' lanceolata weed* natans. w : eed' densus, weed* perforatum, Clasping-1 e a v e d Pondweed as an aquarium plant Potomac snail, ('. viviparus* :.'_', Prawns, shrimps, etc parasite of Prepared food for freshwater fishes Prevention of fungi in aquaria parasitic diseases Preserving natural food Priestly, Principles of the aquarium Proportions of aquaria* Propagating natural food the goldfish Properly conditioned aquarium Proserpinaca and Myriophyllum* ...189, [90, M. proserpinacoides, Parrot's feather palustris, Mermaid-weed* pectinata cut-leaved Mermaid- weed the true Protozoa or protozoan parasites* Protozoan parasites, Protozoa and Bacterids* 153 to Sporozoa Myxospordae Infusoria Pythiopsis cymosa, a vegetal parasite* Q uen-Yu goldfishes 14. Ram's nose and Hog's nose goldfishes Ram's horn or Flat Schuylkill snails' 233.234. Rat, cat, mink, etc., as enemies Raw meat food Recapitalation of aquarium principles Receiving marine consignments Red blood theory in goldfishes Relation of Animals and plants in the aquar- ium Spear-leaved Pond- Spade-leaved Pond- Rroad-leaved Pond- 29 1 29 I -■•) I -•') I 294 294 298 29 I ■■> -•05 29s -'l-r, 295 296 296 2 9 6 296 296 296 297 297 297 297 297 297 297 298 ■78 177 34 214 198 356 247 iSi 300 120 109 213 106 106 85 103 202 183 201 201 201 202 202 202 238 311 156 126 165 159 125 25 278 i-'5 89 26 191 190 191 191 191 153 153 156 154 155 156 163 66 40 238 ' t 1 126 34 325 96 26 Relii t 1 1 om water pressure in dis< p Remedies for fish diseases 133 luction "i I" 1 pari eti ., 1 Reproductive system of the goldfish* 18 Rest between spawnings ,,s. in treatment of disi • > es 141 Restlessness of fishes ^_] Rkiniclithys cataracts, tin I: 75 ffuitans an. I A'. Natati Riukin goldfish n Roach ..r Shiner, /. crys leucas' 8.? Rockwork i"i aquaria 180 tei raria 330 Rotifei .1 "i Parasitii Rotifers Roripa 01 Rotifera, 1 mint! 124 Roundw orms or X. mo Rushes and Sedges 213 Rydei '- Prof. John \ . ol ns tallies of go Is 95 S agittaria, for freshwater aquaria ... I.est aquarium plant 1X4 natans, Floating at row head ' . . pusilla, Sli .I.!- r an ow head 1S5 icefolia, Long beaked a head [85 sinensis and S. chinen sis and S. mulerttii .... graminct, Grass-lea ed arrowhead 185 latifolia, common American ar- rowhead 185 land folia, Lance-leaved arrow- hi ad 186 montovidensis, 1 iiant at 1 om hea planting in the aquarium ...179, as an oxigenator 186 Salamanders and newts, classification of .... 337. 338 Spotted salamander, A. puncta- I 11 111 Ashy salamander, /'. cinereus . . Striped salamander, s. bilineatus Red salamander, S. ruber Triton or water salamander, /'. fusca 338 Common newt or ett, /'. verides- cens 338 Salicylate of soda, and other remedies 133 treatment for diseased fishi Salmon, parasites of 147 Salts, and other remedies 133 table, epsom, glauber, etc 133 Salvinia, for freshwater aquaria 208, 210 natans. Southern salvinia 210 brasiliensis, Tropical salvinia 210 auriculata, South American salvinia 210 elegans, Mexican salvinia 210 Sanitarium or hospital for fishes 132 Saprolegniaceas, vegetal parasites* [62 Saprolegnia ferax, a vegetal parasite* 163 on spawn* 134 Scaled and transparent scaled comet g. 'Id- fishes* 44 nymph goldfishes* 40 fringetail goldfishes 45 Scales of the goldfish* 17 Scaleless goldfishes 93 Scavengers, snails, mussels, tadpoles 27 crabs as 323 marine 323 Scientific Terms, glossary of 357 to 361 Sea anemones and actinia 300, 301, 302 Sea-fans, sea-whips, etc. Gorgonacea S1.1l. Win. P.. suggestions for pond aquaria* 109 Seashells, corals, etc. in the freshwater aquar- ium 32 in the marine aquarium 290 Seawater for marine aquaria artificial 291 Sedentaria, or Marine tubicolous worms amiphitrite ornata cistenides gouldii clymenella torquata Serpula dianthus Sedges and Rushes 213 i ing breeding tish 100 Semotilus corporalis, and .V. atromaculatus, the Dao • 75 Sense of smell of the goldfish 20 touch of the goldfish 20 Separating young fishes 98 Sex discrimination in fishes* .. ; 91 Shape of head of common goldfish Shiner or Roach. A. crysoleucas* 83 Shrimps, prawns, etc 311 parasite of 156 Siphons, thermometer, strait 383 Slate for aquaria, thicknesses and weight . . . Slime fungi, M ixogastres, etc Slumber of the goldfish Small greenhouse for goldfish culture* Snails and mussels of freshwater* Snails, classification and description of fresh- water* 220 to Neritina reclivata and N. showalteri* Viviparus viviparus, / '. georgianus and /". malleatus 1 222, Campeloma decisum and C. pondero- Lioplax subcarinata, and L. pels- bryi* Valvata tricarinata, I', bicarinata and V. sincera* Ampullaria depressa, I', miamiensis and / '. pinei* Somatogyrus aliilis, and 5". subglo- bosus* Amnicola limosa, A. granum and A. palida* 227, Bithynia tentaculata* Ganiobasis virginica and (,'. multin- eata* 228, Anculosa carinatus* Succinea obliqua and .V. ritwsa* . . . Lyiiunr stagnalis, L. palustris, L. columella, L. putris, L. ilcci- diosa and L. catascopium* .231, Planorbis bicarinatus, I', campanu- latus, I'. trivolvis and /'. mag- 11 1 liens* -33, Segmentina armigerus and S. wheat- leyi* Ancylus rivularis, A. parallelus and A. lacustris* Physa heterostropha and A. hy- pnorum* Snail breeding Snail farming Snail, parasites of Snakes or Ophidia, Classification of ...340 to Ground snake, C. turnouts Red-bellied snake, .S'. occipitomacu- lata^ De Kay's snake, i". dekayi Riband snake, T. sauritus Garter snake, T. sirtalis Water snake, N. sipedon Green snake, O. crsti7 , us Grass snake, L. vernalis Black snake, B. constrictor Pine or Bull snake, P. melano- Icitcus Ring-neck snake, D. punctatus . . . Chain or Thendor snake, L. getu- liis Red or Corn snake, L. doliatns . . . Milk or House snake, L. doliatus triangulus Spreading Adder snake, 11. platir- hi 11 os Copperhead snake, A. contortrix . Common Rattlesnake, C. horridus Diamond Rattlesnake, C. adaman- tCIIS Prairie Rattlesnake, 5'. eateuatus . Soft water for aquaria Soil for aquatic plants feeding young fishes "Sore throat" of fishes, and treatment Spawning the goldfish Spawn or eggs of goldfishes Specially equipped Breeding establishments* Spiderlike parasites, Arachnia* Spiny-rayed fishes Sponges or Porifera, calcarea and non-calcarea Sporozoa, protozoan parasites* Sports in goldfishes Spring-time shrimp, B. stagnalis* Squamata or lizards and snakes Starfishes or Rays and Brittle Stars ....304, Asterias forbesii, etc Ophiothrix angulata Amphiura squamata Ophiopholis aculeata, etc Sea-urchins . Irbacia punctulata S. drobachiensis Sand-dollars or Shield-urchins lieliinareliuius parma Sea-cucumbers 306, F'cntacta frondosa, etc Starchy foods for fishes Sterilization of water by boiling Stickleback, the, A. quadratus, etc.* 72, parasites of 148, [49, 154, Stocking the aquarium, freshwater 278 161 21 104 217 2 37 221 238 223 224 225 226 227 229 229 230 235 236 237 239 239 147 344 175 179 117 140 91 101 107 152 85 299 i54 99 118 339 305 306 306 307 127 175 317 156 30 Stocking the aquarium, marine 322 Stream and Pond collecting 85 Sturgeon, parasites of 147, 148 Substitutes for live food 126 Sucker, the common, C. conuncrsonnii* 81 parasites of the 147, 148, 156 Submerged and partly emersed plants ....183, 214 Substances in water 172 Success with aquarium fishes 30, 102 Successful propagation methods 92 Sunfish, E. gibbosus, etc.* 73 parasites of 147, 156 Sunlight, growth of plants affected by 178 Surface light for aquaria 171 Surgical treatment for diseases 136 for tail-rot of fishes 140 for dropsy 143 for injured or diseased fishes 144 Swamp aquarium 332, 333 Swimming bladder of the goldfish* 18 trouble and treatment ... 143 T able of contents 377 goldfish breeds, Ryder's 95 Table-salt treatment for White fungus 135 for Black fungus 137 for Twitters or Itch .... 138 for Fin congestion 139 for leeches 151 for parasites 160 Tail rot diseases of fishes, and treatment* . . 140 Tails of goldfishes 97 Tanks and basins in winter* 104 Tank water for indoor aquaria 177 Tapeworms or Cestoda parasites* 148 Tench, the Green and Golden, T. tinea, T. caeruleus, and T. auratus* 77 parasites of 148, 156 Temperature in feeding 117 Terraria and aqua-terraria 329 dry 329 heated dry 330 heated moist 330 planting the 330 rockwork, etc 330 plants for .214, 331 animals for 331 Tessellated Darter, B. olmstedi* 80 Testudinata or Turtles, tortoises and terrapins 344 Tctromitus nitsehei, an infusorian parasite* . . 158 Tincture of aloes and myrrh 133 for White fungus 136 for tailrot 140 Toads, tree-toads and frogs 333 parasites of, 1 56 Tools and appliances 283, 284, 325 Transferring fishes from aquarium and out-of- door conditions 100, 177 Transparent African snail, L. auricularia* . . . 238 Transporting marine catches 324 Treatment for diseases of fishes 132 for fungus on spawn 134 for White fungus 13s for Black fungus 137 for Twitters or Itch 138 for autotoxin 138 for constipation 139 for fin congestion 139 for tailrot 140 for gill congestion 141 for consumption 142 for eye inflammation 142 for swimming-bladder trouble .... 143 for dropsy 1 43 for injuries 144 for animal parasites, 159, 160, 161, 162 for vegetable parasites 165 for plant fungi 107 for sick fishes, muddy water 176 Tree-toads and tree-frogs 336 as pets and barometers 337 Tremotoda or Flukes, parasites* 146 Tremotod parasites which produce Black fun- gus* 137 Trianea, for freshwater aquaria* 210, 208 bogotensis or Floating-heart 210 as an out-door plant 210 Trochelminths, the Rotifera and Gastrotricha* 124 Trout, parasites of 148 Typha or Cat-tails 214 Type of a fine Fringetail goldfish 356 Tuftstone for aquaria 180 Turbid water for young fishes 176 Turlington's Balsam treatment 1 33 for White fungus 136 for Black fungus 137 for tailrot 140 for injuries of fishes 144 Turtles, and tortoises, classification of 344 to 348 384 Box turtle, T. Carolina Gopher turtle, G. polyphemus Wood tortoise, C". insculptus 345 Muhlenberg's tortoise, C muhlcnbcrgi Spotted tortoise, C. gutattus Painted tortoise, C. picta 346 Mud tortoise, A.', pennsylvunicum ... Stink-pot, A. odoratus Soft-shelled turtle, ./. Spinifer Snapping turtle, C. serpentina 347 Diamond-backed terrapin, M. centrata Red-bellied terrapin, /'. rubriventris . Yellow-bellied terrapin, /'. troosti . . 348 Leather sea-turtle, 1>. COriacea Logger-head turtle, T, caretta Hawk's-bill turtle, E. imbricata .... ( ireen turtle, ( . my das Turtle, parasites of the 147. 150 Twitters or Itch disease of fishes, and treat- ment 137 U mbrella plant, cypera* 213 Undesirable fish globes 35 Univalve Molluscs, classification of 217, 220 Utility of plants in the freshwater aquarium. 27 (Jrodela or salamanders and newts 337 Utricularia, for freshwater aquaria 183 vulgaris. Greater Bladderwort* . 205 minor, Lesser Bladderwort* 205 biHora, Two-flowered Bladder- wort* 205 gibba, Humped Bladderwort 205 intermedia, Flat-leaved Bladder- wort 205 clandistina, Hidden-fruited Blad- derwort 205 purpurea, Purple Bladderwort . . . 205 subulata, Tiny or Zig-zag Bladder- wort 205 in the aquarium 205 allisneria, for freshwater aquaria, 183, 188, 189 spiralis, Eel or Tape grass* 188 male and female plants 188 method of fertilization 188 spiralis gigantea, a cultivated variety 189 planting in the aquarium 189 Variations in fins and tails of goldfishes, etc.* 97 goldfish breeds 41 Variety in feeding fishes 127 Vegetable and animal matter in water 175 Vegetal Parasites and parasitic diseases 161 Vermes and hydrozoa of freshwater 246 Vessels for contagiously diseased fishes 132 Wakin goldfish 11 Watasc, Dr. S., on tin- origin of the goldfish 11 I )n the Caudal and anal fins "i gold- fishes* 97 warm water treatment for diseases <>•' fishes . 143 Washington grass, etc., C. caroliniana* . 186 Water, aquarium 171 analyses 173 carbonic acid gas in 1 7S changing aquarium water 176 conditions for aquaria 171 effecting growth of plants 177 filling aquaria with oul of-door tank water 177 mineral constituents supplied to aquar- ium 176 of a balanced aquarium, analysis id .. 173 oxygen in [78 soft, for aquaria 175 substances in 172 turbid, for young fishes 176 temperatures in the freshwater aquar- ium 30 in the marine aquarium 290 vegetable and animal matter in 175 Watcr-asel, wood-louse, A. tenax* 122 Water clover in aquaria 179 feather or Hottonia 206 Watercresses, for freshwater aquaria 203 Roripa palustris, Yellnw Watercress .. 203 sylvestris, Creeping Watercress .•".( nasturtium, Fountamcress 203 hispida, Bristly Watercress . . . 203 planting in aquaria 203 Water hyacinths, for aquaria uses 208 for goldfish propagation . . 211, 213 lettuce, for freshwater aquaria ..208, 212 lobelias for pond culture, etc 213 -mite, H. geographica* 1 52 -newts and salamanders 337, 338 parasites of 150 poppy, as an aquarium plant, 179, 183, 212 clover, as an aquarium plant 212 snowrlake, as an aquarium plant 212 Watershield, Fanwort, Washington grass, etc., C. caroliniana* 186 yam, lace plant or lattice-leaf 212 Whitefish, parasites of 148 White fungus on spawn and fishes, and treat- ment* '34 Wild cellery, V. spiralis 188 Willowmoss, Fontinalis, etc.* 200 Wintering goldfishes no, 112 Worms or Annelida of freshwater 246 Worms and leeches, marine 3°3 385 SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION LIBRARIES 3 9088 00710 3716